Biological aspects of fluorine
Aside from their use in medicine, man-made fluorinated compounds have also played a role in several noteworthy environmental concerns.
Fluorine biology is also relevant to a number of cutting-edge technologies. PFCs (
Dental care
Since the mid-20th century, it has been discerned from population studies (though incompletely understood) that fluoride reduces
When teeth begin to decay from the acid produced by sugar-consuming bacteria, calcium is lost (demineralization). However, teeth have a limited ability to recover calcium if decay is not too far advanced (remineralization). Fluoride appears to reduce demineralization and increase remineralization. Also, there is some evidence that fluoride interferes with the bacteria that consume sugars in the mouth and make tooth-destroying acids.[3] In any case, it is only the fluoride that is directly present in the mouth (topical treatment) that prevents cavities; fluoride ions that are swallowed do not benefit the teeth.[3]
Sodium fluoride, tin difluoride, and, most commonly, sodium monofluorophosphate, are used in toothpaste. In 1955, the first fluoride toothpaste was introduced in the United States. Now, almost all toothpaste in developed countries is fluoridated. For example, 95% of European toothpaste contains fluoride.[9] Gels and foams are often advised for special patient groups, particularly those undergoing radiation therapy to the head (cancer patients). The patient receives a four-minute application of a high amount of fluoride. Varnishes, which can be more quickly applied, exist and perform a similar function. Fluoride is also often present in prescription and non-prescription mouthwashes and is a trace component of foods manufactured using fluoridated water supplies.[11]
Medical applications
Pharmaceuticals
Of all commercialized pharmaceutical drugs, twenty percent contain fluorine, including important drugs in many different pharmaceutical classes.[12] Fluorine is often added to drug molecules during drug design, as even a single atom can greatly change the chemical properties of the molecule in desirable ways.
Because of the considerable stability of the
Adding fluorine to biologically active organic compounds increases their lipophilicity (ability to dissolve in fats), because the carbon–fluorine bond is even more hydrophobic than the carbon–hydrogen bond. This effect often increases a drug's bioavailability because of increased cell membrane penetration.[14] Although the potential of fluorine being released in a fluoride leaving group depends on its position in the molecule,[15] organofluorides are generally very stable, since the carbon–fluorine bond is strong.
Fluorines also find their uses in common mineralocorticoids, a class of drugs that increase the blood pressure. Adding a fluorine increases both its medical power and anti-inflammatory effects.[16] Fluorine-containing fludrocortisone is one of the most common of these drugs.[17] Dexamethasone and triamcinolone, which are among the most potent of the related synthetic corticosteroid class of drugs, contain fluorine as well.[17]
Several inhaled general anesthetic agents, including the most commonly used inhaled agents, also contain fluorine. The first fluorinated anesthetic agent, halothane, proved to be much safer (neither explosive nor flammable) and longer-lasting than those previously used. Modern fluorinated anesthetics are longer-lasting still and almost insoluble in blood, which accelerates the awakening.[18] Examples include sevoflurane, desflurane, enflurane, and isoflurane, all hydrofluorocarbon derivatives.[19]
Prior to the 1980s,
Lipitor (atorvastatin) | 5-FU (fluorouracil) | Florinef (fludrocortisone) | Isoflurane |
Scanning
Compounds containing fluorine-18, a radioactive isotope that emits
Natural fluorine is monoisotopic, consisting solely of
Oxygen transport research
Liquid fluorocarbons have a very high capacity for holding gas in solution. They can hold more oxygen or carbon dioxide than blood does. For that reason, they have attracted ongoing interest related to the possibility of artificial blood or of liquid breathing.[28]
Blood substitutes are the subject of research because the demand for blood transfusions grows faster than donations. In some scenarios, artificial blood may be more convenient or safe. Because fluorocarbons do not normally mix with water, they must be mixed into emulsions (small droplets of perfluorocarbon suspended in water) in order to be used as blood.
Possible medical uses of liquid breathing (which uses pure perfluorocarbon liquid, not a water emulsion) involve assistance for premature babies or for burn patients (if normal lung function is compromised). Both partial and complete filling of the lungs have been considered, although only the former has undergone any significant tests in humans. Several animal tests have been performed and there have been some human partial liquid ventilation trials.[33] One effort, by Alliance Pharmaceuticals, reached clinical trials but was abandoned because of insufficient advantage compared to other therapies.[34]
Nanocrystals represent a possible method of delivering water- or fat-soluble drugs within a perfluorochemical fluid. The use of these particles is being developed to help treat babies with damaged lungs.[35]
Perfluorocarbons are banned from sports, where they may be used to increase oxygen use for endurance athletes. One cyclist, Mauro Gianetti, was investigated after a near-fatality where PFC use was suspected.[36][37] Other posited applications include deep-sea diving and space travel, applications that both require total, not partial, liquid ventilation.[38][39] The 1989 film The Abyss depicted a fictional use of perfluorocarbon for human diving but also filmed a real rat surviving while cooled and immersed in perfluorocarbon.[40] (See also list of fictional treatments of perfluorocarbon breathing.)
Agrichemicals
An estimated 30% of agrichemical compounds contain fluorine.[41] Most of them are used as poisons, but a few stimulate growth instead.
Trifluralin was widely used in the 20th century, for example, in over half of U.S. cotton field acreage in 1998.[46] Because of its suspected carcinogenic properties some Northern European countries banned it in 1993.[47] As of 2015, the European Union has banned it, although Dow made a case to cancel the decision in 2011.[48]
Biochemistry
Biologically synthesized organofluorines are few in number, although some are widely produced.
Fluoride is considered a semi-essential element for humans: not necessary to sustain life, but contributing (within narrow limits of daily intake) to dental health and bone strength. Daily requirements for fluorine in humans vary with age and sex, ranging from 0.01 mg in infants below 6 months to 4 mg in adult males, with an upper tolerable limit of 0.7 mg in infants to 10 mg in adult males and females.
Hazards
NFPA 704 fire diamond | |
---|---|
Fluorine gas
Elemental fluorine is highly toxic. Above a concentration of 25 ppm, it causes significant irritation while attacking the eyes, airways and lungs and affecting the liver and kidneys. At a concentration of 100 ppm, human eyes and noses are seriously damaged.
Hydrofluoric acid
Once in the blood, hydrogen fluoride reacts with calcium and magnesium, resulting in electrolyte imbalances, potentially including
Symptoms of exposure to hydrofluoric acid may not be immediately evident, with an eight-hour delay for 50% HF and up to 24 hours for lower concentrations. Hydrogen fluoride interferes with nerve function, meaning that burns may not initially be painful. If the burn has been initially noticed, then HF should be washed off with a forceful stream of water for ten to fifteen minutes to prevent its further penetration into the body. Clothing used by the person burned may also present a danger.[63] Hydrofluoric acid exposure is often treated with calcium gluconate, a source of Ca2+ that binds with the fluoride ions. Skin burns can be treated with a water wash and 2.5 percent calcium gluconate gel[64][65] or special rinsing solutions.[66] Because HF is absorbed, further medical treatment is necessary. Calcium gluconate may be injected or administered intravenously. Use of calcium chloride is contraindicated and may lead to severe complications. Sometimes surgical excision of tissue or amputation is required.[62][67]
Fluoride ion
Soluble fluorides are moderately toxic. For sodium fluoride, the lethal dose for adults is 5–10 g, which is equivalent to 32–64 mg of elemental fluoride per kilogram of body weight.[68] The dose that may lead to adverse health effects is about one fifth of the lethal dose.[69] Chronic excess fluoride consumption can lead to skeletal fluorosis, a disease of the bones that affects millions in Asia and Africa.[69][70]
The fluoride ion is readily absorbed by the stomach and intestines. Ingested fluoride forms hydrofluoric acid in the stomach. In this form, fluoride crosses cell membranes and then binds with calcium and interferes with various enzymes. Fluoride is excreted through urine. Fluoride exposure limits are based on urine testing, which is used to determine the human body's capacity for ridding itself of fluoride.[69][71]
Historically, most cases of fluoride poisoning have been caused by accidental ingestion of insecticides containing inorganic fluoride.[72] Most calls to poison control centers for possible fluoride poisoning come from the ingestion of fluoride-containing toothpaste.[69] Malfunction of water fluoridation equipment has occurred several times, including an Alaskan incident that sickened nearly 300 people and killed one.[73]
Biopersistence
Because of the strength of the carbon–fluorine bond, organofluorines endure in the environment. Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) have attracted particular attention as persistent global contaminants. These compounds can enter the environment from their direct uses in waterproofing treatments and firefighting foams or indirectly from leaks from fluoropolymer production plants (where they are intermediates). Because of the acid group, PFCs are water-soluble in low concentrations.[74] While there are other PFAAs, the lion's share of environmental research has been done on the two most well-known: perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency classifies these materials as "emerging contaminants" based on the growing but still incomplete understanding of their environmental impact.[75][76][77]
Trace quantities of PFCs have been detected worldwide, in organisms from polar bears in the Arctic to the global human population. Both PFOS and PFOA have been detected in breast milk and the blood of newborns. A 2013 review showed widely varying amounts of PFOS and PFOA in different soils and groundwater, with no clear pattern of one chemical dominating. PFC concentrations were generally higher in areas with more human population or industrial activity, and areas with more PFOS generally also had more PFOA.[78] the two chemicals have been found at different concentrations in different populations; for example, one study showed more PFOS than PFOA in Germans, while another study showed the reverse for Americans. PFCs may be starting to decrease in the biosphere: one study indicated that PFOS levels in wildlife in Minnesota were decreasing, presumably because 3M discontinued its production.[75][76]
In the body, PFCs bind to proteins such as serum albumin. Their tissue distribution in humans is unknown, but studies in rats suggest it is present mostly in the liver, kidney, and blood. They are not metabolized by the body but are excreted by the kidneys. Dwell time in the body varies greatly by species. Rodents have half-lives of days, while in humans they remain for years. Many animals show sex differences in the ability to rid the body of PFAAs, but without a clear pattern. Gender differences of half lives vary by animal species.[75][76][79]
The potential health impact of PFCs is unclear. Unlike chlorinated hydrocarbons, PFCs are not
The biochemical causes of toxicity are also unclear and may differ by molecule, health effect, and even animal.
Less fluorinated chemicals (i.e. not perfluorinated compounds) can also be detected in the environment. Because biological systems do not metabolize fluorinated molecules easily, fluorinated pharmaceuticals like antibiotics and antidepressants can be found in treated city sewage and wastewater.[80] Fluorine-containing agrichemicals are measurable in farmland runoff and nearby rivers.[81]
See also
- Fluorine absorption dating (a relative method for archeological dating of bone or other organics)
- Fluorine deficiency
- Fluoride toxicity
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External links
- A strong acid it is not, but deadly it is... (Podcast on fluorine, note the first few minutes discussion of a fatal HF burn.)