Bird-of-paradise
Bird-of-paradise | |
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Raggiana bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea raggiana) | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Aves |
Order: | Passeriformes |
Superfamily: | Corvoidea |
Family: | Paradisaeidae Swainson, 1825 |
Genera | |
17 genera, 45 species[1] |
The birds-of-paradise are members of the
.A number of species are
Taxonomy
The family Paradisaeidae was introduced (as Paradiseidae) in 1825 with Paradisaea as the type genus by the English naturalist William John Swainson.[3][a][b] For many years the birds-of-paradise were treated as being closely related to the bowerbirds. Today while both are treated as being part of the Australasian lineage Corvida, the two are now thought to be only distantly related. The closest evolutionary relatives of the birds-of-paradise are the crow and jay family Corvidae, the monarch flycatchers Monarchidae, and the Australian mudnesters Struthideidae.[9]
A 2009 study examining the mitochondrial DNA of all species to examine the relationships within the family and to its nearest relatives estimated that the family emerged 24 million years ago, earlier than previous estimates. The study identified five clades within the family, and placed the split between the first clade, which contains the monogamous manucodes and paradise-crow, and all the other birds-of-paradise, to be 10 million years ago. The second clade includes the parotias and the King of Saxony bird-of-paradise. The third clade provisionally contains several genera, including Seleucidis, the Drepanornis sicklebills, Semioptera, Ptiloris, and Lophorina, although some of these are questionable. The fourth clade includes the Epimachus sicklebills, Paradigalla, and the astrapias. The final clade includes the Cicinnurus and the Paradisaea birds-of-paradise.[10]
The exact limits of the family have been the subject of revision as well. The three species of
Phylogeny
A genus level phylogeny of the family has been determined by Martin Irestedt and collaborators.[10][14]
Paradisaeidae |
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Species
genus:
genus:
genus: Phonygammus
genus: Paradigalla
genus: Astrapia
genus: Parotia
genus: Pteridophora
genus: Lophorina
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genus: Ptiloris
genus: Epimachus
genus: Drepanornis
genus: Cicinnurus
genus: Diphyllodes
genus: Semioptera
genus: Seleucidis
genus: Paradisaea
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Hybrids
Hybrid birds-of-paradise may occur when individuals of different species, that look similar and have overlapping ranges, confuse each other for their own species and crossbreed.
When Erwin Stresemann realised that hybridisation among birds-of-paradise might be an explanation as to why so many of the described species were so rare, he examined many controversial specimens and, during the 1920s and 1930s, published several papers on his hypothesis. Many of the species described in the late 19th and early 20th centuries are now generally considered to be hybrids, though some are still subject to dispute; their status is not likely to be settled definitely without genetic examination of museum specimens, which will come soon in summer 2021 in North America, South America, Africa, Europe, Asia, and Australia, and some birds in an aviary in Central Park Zoo.
Description
Birds-of-paradise are closely related to the corvids. Birds-of-paradise range in size from the king bird-of-paradise at 50 g (1.8 oz) and 15 cm (5.9 in) to the curl-crested manucode at 44 cm (17 in) and 430 g (15 oz). The male black sicklebill, with its long tail, is the longest species at 110 cm (43 in). In most species, the tails of the males are larger and longer than those of the females, the differences ranging from slight to extreme. The wings are rounded and in some species structurally modified on the males in order to make sound. There is considerable variation in the family with regard to bill shape. Bills may be long and decurved, as in the sicklebills and riflebirds, or small and slim like the Astrapias. As with body size, bill size varies between the sexes, although species where the females have larger bills than the males are more common, particularly in the insect-eating species.[9]
Plumage variation between the sexes is closely related to the breeding system. The manucodes and paradise-crow, which are socially monogamous, are sexually monomorphic. So are the two species of Paradigalla, which are polygamous. All these species have generally black plumage with varying amounts of green and blue iridescence.[9] The female plumage of the dimorphic species is typically drab to blend in with their habitat, unlike the bright attractive colours found on the males. Younger males of these species have female-like plumage, and sexual maturity takes a long time, with the full adult plumage not being obtained for up to seven years. This affords the younger males protection from predators of more subdued colours and also reduces hostility from adult males.[9]
Distribution and habitat
The centre of bird-of-paradise
The majority of birds-of-paradise live in tropical forests, including
Behaviour and ecology
Diet and feeding
The diet of the birds-of-paradise is dominated by fruit and arthropods, although small amounts of nectar and small vertebrates may also be taken. The ratio of the two food types varies by species, with fruit predominating in some species, and arthropods dominating the diet in others. The ratio of the two will affect other aspects of the behaviour of the species; for example,
Even the birds-of-paradise that are primarily insect eaters will still take large amounts of fruit. The family is overall an important seed disperser for the forests of New Guinea, as they do not digest the seeds. Species that feed on fruit will range widely searching for fruit, and while they may join other fruit-eating species at a fruiting tree, they will not associate with them otherwise and will not stay with other species for long. Fruit is eaten while perched and not in the air, and birds-of-paradise are able to use their feet as tools to manipulate and hold their food, allowing them to extract certain capsular fruit. There is some niche differentiation in fruit choice by species and any one species will only consume a limited number of fruit types compared to the large choice available. For example, the trumpet manucode and crinkle-collared manucode will eat mostly figs, whereas the Lawes's parotia focuses mostly on berries and the greater lophorina and raggiana bird-of-paradise take mostly capsular fruit.[9]
Breeding
Most species have elaborate mating rituals, with at least eight species exhibiting
Birds-of-paradise build their nests from soft materials, such as leaves, ferns, and vine tendrils, typically placed in a tree fork.[21] The typical number of eggs in each clutch varies among the species and is not known for every species. For larger species, it is almost always just one egg, but smaller species may produce clutches of 2–3 eggs.[22] Eggs hatch after 16–22 days, and the young leave the nest at between 16 and 30 days of age.[21]
Relationship with humans
Societies of New Guinea often use bird-of-paradise plumes in their dress and rituals, and the plumes were popular in Europe in past centuries as adornment for ladies' millinery. Hunting for plumes and habitat destruction have reduced some species to endangered status; habitat destruction due to deforestation is now the predominant threat.[9]
Best known are the members of the genus Paradisaea, including the type species, the greater bird-of-paradise, Paradisaea apoda. This species was described from specimens brought back to Europe from trading expeditions in the early sixteenth century. These specimens had been prepared by native traders by removing their wings and feet so that they could be used as decorations. This was not known to the explorers, and in the absence of information, many beliefs arose about them. They were briefly thought to be the mythical phoenix. The often footless and wingless condition of the skins led to the belief that the birds never landed but were kept permanently aloft by their plumes. The first Europeans to encounter their skins were the voyagers in Ferdinand Magellan's circumnavigation of the Earth.[23] Antonio Pigafetta wrote that "The people told us that those birds came from the terrestrial paradise, and they call them bolon diuata, that is to say, 'birds of God'."[24] This is the origin of both the name "bird of paradise" and the specific name apoda – without feet.[25] An alternate account by Maximilianus Transylvanus used the term Mamuco Diata, a variant of Manucodiata, which was used as a synonym for birds-of-paradise up to the 19th century.
Birdwatching
In recent years the availability of pictures and videos about birds of paradise on the internet has raised the interest of birdwatchers around the world. Many of them fly to
This activity significantly reduces the number of local villagers who are involved in the hunting of paradise birds.
Hunting
Hunting of birds of paradise has occurred for a long time, possibly since the beginning of human settlement.[27] It is a peculiarity that among the most frequently-hunted species, males start mating opportunistically even before they grow their ornamental plumage. This may be an adaptation to maintaining population levels in the face of hunting pressures, which have probably been present for hundreds of years.[28]
The naturalist, explorer, and author Alfred Russel Wallace spent six years in the region, which he chronicled in The Malay Archipelago (published in 1869). His expedition team shot, collected, and described many specimens of animals and birds, including the great, king, twelve-wired, superb, red, and six-shafted birds of paradise.[29]
Other examples
- The southern hemisphere constellation Apus represents a bird-of-paradise.
- An adult-plumaged male bird-of-paradise is depicted on the flag of Papua New Guinea, designed by Susan Karike.
- The various members of the family were profiled by David Attenborough in Attenborough in Paradise.
- The Indonesian Army has a Military Area Command named after "Cenderawasih", the local name for the bird.
- The plume from the bird of paradise was used in Shripech, the royal crown worn by the King of Nepal, before the establishment of a republic. Now, the crown is housed in Naraynhiti Palace Museum.
See also
Notes
- ^ In 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae, Carl Linnaeus spelled the genus name as both Paradisea and Paradisaea.[4] In 2012 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature suppressed the spelling Paradisea.[5][6]
- ^ The authority for the family Paradisaeidae has traditionally been attributed to the Irish zoologist Nicholas Aylward Vigors.[7] Vigors was constrained by the quinarian system and his use of Paradisaeae was not intended as a family name.[6][8]
References
- Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (January 2022). "Crows, mudnesters, melampittas, Ifrit, birds-of-paradise". IOC World Bird List Version 12.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
- PMID 30457985.
- ^ Swainson, William John (1825). "On the characters and natural affinities of several new birds from Australasia; including some observations on the Columbidae". Zoological Journal. 1: 463–484 [480].
- ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema Naturae (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. pp. 83, 110.
- S2CID 81167105.
- ^ S2CID 84064906.
- hdl:2246/830.
- .
- ^ ISBN 978-84-96553-50-7.
- ^ PMID 19758445.
- ^
Cracraft, J.; Feinstein, J. (2000). "What is not a bird of paradise? Molecular and morphological evidence places Macgregoria in the Meliphagidae and the Cnemophilinae near the base of the corvoid tree". PMID 10714877.
- ^ Sibley, . & Ahlquist, J. (1987). "The Lesser Melampitta is a Bird of Paradise" Emu 87: 66–68
- PMID 18620871.
- .
- ^ Honolulu Zoo "Birds of Paradise". Archived from the original on 2011-05-15. Retrieved 2011-02-03., Birds of Paradise, Accessed Feb 3, 2011
- ^ S2CID 83592452.
- S2CID 21374280.
- ^
Ligon, Russell A.; Diaz, Christopher D.; Morano, Janelle L.; Troscianko, Jolyon; Stevens, Martin; Moskeland, Annalyse; Laman, Timothy G.; Scholes III, Edwin (2019). "Evolution of correlated complexity in the radically different courtship signals of birds-of-paradise". PLOS Biology. 16 (11): e2006962. PMID 30457985. Open access
- ISSN 1860-0743.
- JSTOR 1370166.
- ^ a b
Frith, Clifford B. (1991). Forshaw, Joseph (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Animals: Birds. London: Merehurst Press. pp. 228–231. ISBN 1-85391-186-0.
- ^ Mackay, Margaret D. (1990). "The Egg of Wahnes' Parotia Parotia wahnesi (Paradisaeidae)". Emu. 90 (4): 269. . PDF fulltext
- ^ Andaya, Leonard (October 2017). "Flights of fancy: The bird of paradise and its cultural impact" (PDF). Journal of Southeast Asian Studies: 374.
- S2CID 145329486.
- ISBN 0-19-854634-3.
- ^ "Rare Footage of New Bird of Paradise Species Shows Odd Courtship Dance | Nat Geo Wild". YouTube. 2018-09-14. Retrieved 2020-09-20.
- ISSN 0022-4634.
- ISSN 0158-4197.
- ^ Wallace, Alfred Russel. The Malay Archipelago. London: Macmillan, 1869.
- ISBN 90-6718-124-2.
Bibliography
- Laman, Tim; Scholes, Edwin (2012). Birds of Paradise, Revealing the World's Most Extraordinary Birds (PDF). National Geographic Society. ISBN 978-1-426-20958-1.
External links
- Birds-of-Paradise Project website by the Cornell Lab of Ornithology
- Bird-of-paradise videos and images on the Internet Bird Collection
- Birds-of-paradise infographic produced for National Geographic
- Birds-of-paradise from Papua New Guinea, PhotographyAxis
- . . 1914.