Birdsong in music
Composers and musicians have made use of birdsong in their music in different ways: they can be inspired by the sounds; they can intentionally imitate birdsong in a composition; they can incorporate recordings of birds into their works, as Ottorino Respighi first did; or, like the cellist Beatrice Harrison in 1924 and more recently the jazz musician David Rothenberg, they can duet with birds.
Authors including Rothenberg have claimed that birds such as the
Influence on music
Imitations of birdsong
In classical music
Composers have a variety of bird sounds to work with, from actual birdsong and calls to the appearance and movements of birds, whether real, fictional (like the
Among the major composers to imitate birdsong are
Less commonly imitated are the
Among twentieth-century composers,
The zoomusicologist Hollis Taylor has charted the multiple techniques used by composers when appropriating the song of the Australian pied butcherbird (Cracticus nigrogularis):[21]
In compositional design, pied butcherbird vocalisations have been the source in the parameters of melody, harmony, rhythm, gesture, contour, dynamic envelope, formal structure, phrase length (and the balance of sound and silence), scales, repetition, acoustic image, programmatic intent, and poetic or psychic inspiration. Their flute-like phrases have been assigned to piano and bass, clarinet and bassoon, xylophone and violin. They have been embedded in a stuffed toy.[21]
Composer Alexander Liebermann transcribes birdsong onto sheet music and incorporates bird calls into his compositions. Species he has transcribed include the musician wren (uirapuru), the common loon, the thrush nightingale, the white bellbird, the Chinese hwamei, the Japanese bush warbler (uguisu), the common peafowl, the oropendola, the cuckoo, and the Javan pied starling, among others.[22]
In other musical traditions
The imitation of bird song was popular in stage performances in the United States, particularly during the era when vaudeville and Chautauqua were popular. Gramophone recordings of whistling performances accompanied by instrumental music were also popular. Prominent performers in America included Charles Crawford Gorst, Charles Kellogg, Joe Belmont, and Edward Avis; those in Britain included Alec Shaw and Percy Edwards.[23][24]
Among
The scholar of folklore Imani Sanga identifies three ways that bird song is classified and perceived in an African context: that birds sing, are musicians, and are materials for composition. He notes that Western musicians likewise use birds in compositions. Sanga mentions that a 1982 study by Feld explained that in
The ethnographer Helena Simonett writes that the
Use of recorded birdsong
The Italian composer Ottorino Respighi, with his Pines of Rome (1923–1924), may have been the first to compose a piece of music that calls for pre-recorded birdsong. A few years later, Respighi wrote Gli Uccelli ("The Birds"), based on Baroque pieces imitating four different birds, one to each movement of the work after its prelude:[5]
- "Prelude" (based on the music of Bernardo Pasquini)[5]
- "La colomba" ("The Jacques de Gallot)[5]
- "La gallina" ("The hen", based on the music of Jean-Philippe Rameau)[5]
- "L'usignuolo" ("The nightingale", based on the folksong "Engels Nachtegaeltje" transcribed by recorder virtuoso Jacob van Eyck)[5]
- "Il cucù" ("The cuckoo", based on the music of Pasquini)[5]
In 1972, the Finnish composer Einojuhani Rautavaara wrote the orchestral piece Cantus Arcticus (Opus 61, dubbed Concerto for Birds and Orchestra). It makes extensive use of recorded birdsong and bird calls from the Arctic, such as the trumpeting of migrating swans.[30]
In the 1960s and 1970s, several popular music bands started to use sound effects including birdsong in their albums. For example, the English band Pink Floyd included bird sound effects in songs from their 1969 albums More and Ummagumma (for example, "Grantchester Meadows"). Similarly, the English singer Kate Bush used bird calls on her 2005 album, Aerial.[31][32] The well-known 1968 song "Blackbird" by the Beatles includes an actual Eurasian blackbird singing in the background.[33]
The group
The French composer François-Bernard Mâche has been credited with the creation of zoomusicology, the study of the music of animals. His 1983 essay "Musique, mythe, nature, ou les Dauphins d'Arion" includes a study of "ornitho-musicology", in which he speaks of "animal musics" and a longing to connect with nature.[35]
Other recent composers for whom recorded birdsong is a major influence include R. Murray Schafer, Michel Gonneville, Rozalie Hirs,[36] and Stephen Preston.[37] The Indian zoo-musicologist A. J. Mithra has composed music using natural bird, animal and frog sounds since 2008.[38]
Jonathan Harvey's Bird Concerto with Piano Song, premiered in 2003, makes use of the slowed-down song of American west coast birds including the orchard oriole, the indigo bunting and the golden-crowned sparrow, so as to explore their complexity and ornamentation which are otherwise too rapid for the human ear to analyse.[8]
Stephen Nachmanovitch's Hermitage of Thrushes (released 2020) consists of ten pieces featuring the songs of a wide variety of birds, some of them slowed-down, in counterpoint with violin, viola, electric violin, and viola d'amore. The composer recorded the songs and created the music during the early part of the coronavirus pandemic, all within a square mile of Virginia woodlands.[39]
Birdsong as music
On 19 May 1924,
Adam Tierney and colleagues argued in a 2011 paper that the similar motor constraints on human and avian song drive these to have similar song structures, including "arch-shaped and descending melodic contours in musical phrases", long notes at the ends of phrases, and typically small differences in pitch between adjacent notes. They excluded birds like the European starling which use many buzzing or clicking noises that are inharmonic, working instead with birds with a strong pitch structure like the field sparrow
Hollis Taylor argued in her 2017 book that the vocalizations of the pied butcherbird are music, rebutting musicological objections to this in detail. This was accompanied by birdsong-based "(re)compositions" based on avian transcriptions, paired with field recordings from the Australian outback.[51][52][49]
In ethnomusicology
Michael Silvers writes that multispecies ethnomusicology, especially of birds, can improve understanding of how music is produced and its purpose, and clarify what ethnomusicology is. He found some 150 ethnomusicology articles on birds. He noted that Bruno Nettl, discussing Persian classical music, stated that listening to the Nightingale was a metaphor; it never repeats its song, so listening to it signifies that that human music may not repeat either.[53][54] Laudan Nooshin uses Nettl's account of the nightingale to describe khalāqiat, musical improvisation, which however requires knowledge of radif, the traditional repertory. The Nightingale is important culturally for its song, so musicologists must study its song to understand its improvisation, just as they must study human music to understand human musical improvisation.[55]
See also
Notes
- ^ The parrot is saying χαίρε, chaire, 'cheers', a familiar greeting in Greek.
- ^ In the 1924 sound clip, Harrison is heard playing "Danny Boy" on the cello while the nightingales sing.[6]
- ^ The Araya-Salas study did not investigate the song of any other species, nor other aspects of musicality such as those explored by Adam Tierney.[48][1]
References
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