Bone china
Bone china is a type of
In the mid-18th century, English potters had not succeeded in making
From its initial development and up to the latter part of the 20th century, bone china was almost exclusively an English product, with production being effectively localised in Stoke-on-Trent (particularly the Staffordshire potteries).[6] Most major English firms made or still make it, including Spode, and Worcester, Royal Crown Derby, Royal Doulton, Wedgwood, and Mintons. In the 20th century it began to be made elsewhere, including in Russia, China, and Japan. China is now the world's largest manufacturer.
In the UK, references to "china" or "porcelain" can refer to bone china, and "English porcelain" has been used as a term for it, both in the UK and around the world.[7]
History
The first development of what would become known as bone china was made by Thomas Frye at his Bow porcelain factory near Bow in East London in 1748. His factory was located very close to the cattle markets and slaughterhouses of London and Essex, and hence had easy access to animal bones. Frye used up to 45% bone ash in his formulation to create what he called "fine porcelain".[6][8]
Later,
Production
Raw materials
The traditional formulation for bone china is about 25%
The bone ash that is used in bone china has traditionally been made from cattle bones that have a lower iron content. These bones are crushed before being degelatinised and then calcined to around 1,000 °C to produce bone ash.[13] The ash is milled to a fine particle size.[14] The kaolin component of the body is needed to give the unfired body plasticity which allows articles to be shaped.[2] This mixture is then fired at around 1200 °C.[14] The raw materials for bone china are comparatively expensive, and the production is labour-intensive, which is why bone china maintains a luxury status and high pricing.[6]
The use of hydroxyapatite compounds, derived from rock sources, rather than bone ash has seen increased use since the 1990s. If used appropriately the resultant ceramic material conforms to accepted definitions of bone china, and the properties and appearance are indistinguishable from those using naturally derived bone ash.[15][16][17][18]
Mineralogy
Bone china consists of two crystalline phases, anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8) and β-tricalcium phosphate/whitlockite (Ca3(PO4)2) embedded in a substantial amount of glass.[19]
Production locations
For almost 200 years from its development bone china was almost exclusively produced in the UK. During the middle part of the 20th century manufacturers in other countries began production, with the first successful ones outside the UK being in Japan: Noritake, Nikko and Narumi.[20][21]
In the Soviet Union, bone china was produced at the Lomonosov Porcelain Factory. Production started in 1969.[22]
In more recent years production in China has expanded considerably, and the country is now the biggest producer of bone china in the world. Other countries producing considerable amounts of bone china are Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Iran,[citation needed] Sri Lanka and Thailand.[20][21][23]
From the start of the first factory, Bengal Potteries, in 1964, bone china output from Indian factories had risen to 10,000 tonnes per year by 2009.[24] Rajasthan has become a hub for bone china in India, with production in the state totalling 16-17 tonnes per day in 2003.[25]
Lenox was the only major manufacturer of bone china in the United States,[citation needed] and has supplied presidential services to the White House. It closed production in the US permanently in March 2020.[26]
Cultural issues
In the 21st century, "Islamic bone china" became available, using only bone ash from halal animals.[27]
Due to the use of animal bones in the production of bone china
References
- ^ By The British Pottery Manufacturers' Federation, and quoted in Dictionary Of Ceramics. Arthur Dodd & David Murfin. 3rd edition. The Institute Of Minerals. 1994-1995.
- ^ a b c Ozgundogdu, Feyza Cakir. “Bone China from Turkey” Ceramics Technical; May2005, Issue 20, p29-32.
- ^ 'Trading Places.' R.Ware. Asian Ceramics. November,2009, p.35,37-39
- ^ What is China? As with stoneware, the body becomes vitrified; which means the body fuses, becomes nonabsorbent, and very strong. Unlike stoneware, china becomes very white and translucent. Archived 2015-06-14 at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 0571049028
- ^ a b c d 'Trading Places.' R.Ware. Asian Ceramics. November,2009, p.35,37-39.
- ISBN 1136801928, 781136801921
- ^ "Science Of Early English Porcelain." I.C. Freestone. Sixth Conference and Exhibition of the European Ceramic Society. Vol.1 Brighton, 20–24 June 1999, p.11-17
- ^ "Spode Museum Trust:The First Spode Period 1776-1833". Archived from the original on 2020-10-11. Retrieved 2014-11-17.
- ^ Karwatka, Dennis. "Josiah Spode and His World-Famous Pottery." Tech Directions; Apr 2009, Vol. 68 Issue 9, p12-12.
- ^ "Stoke kilns fired up for Spode again". Staffordshire Sentinel. Nortchliffe. 2009-04-24. Retrieved 2009-04-25.
- ^ Birks, Steve. “Bone China” The Potteries. 17 Feb. 2003 <http://www.thepotteries.org/types/bonechina.htm>
- ^ ‘Production Of Bone Ash For The Manufacture Of Bone China.’ Industrial Ceramics. No.843,1989, p.767-770
- ^ a b Whitewares: Production, Testing And Quality Control. W.Ryan & C.Radford. Pergamon Press / Institute Of Ceramics, 1987
- ^ 'Skeletons In The Cupboard. Asian Ceramics February 2013
- ^ 'Bones Of Contention. Asian Ceramics. April 2004
- ^ 'The Case For Synthetic Bone China. Asian Ceramics And Glass, July 2000
- ^ 'Replacing Bone Ash In China. D.Gratton. Journal Of The Canadian Ceramics Society 65. No.4. 1996
- ^ ‘Pottery Science – materials, process and products.’ Allen Dinsdale. Ellis Horwood. 1986.
- ^ a b 'Cup And Sources- Asian Tableware Leads The Way'. Rohan Gunasekera. Asian Ceramics July / August 2013.
- ^ a b Skeletons In The Cupboard. Asian Ceramics. February 2013.
- ^ "Костяной фарфор Императорского фарфорового завода" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-03-15. Retrieved 2022-10-20.
- ^ Bangladesh Tableware. Asian Ceramics February 2012.
- ^ Indian Bone China - Serving Up Opportunities. Asian Ceramics. March 2009.
- ^ Bulls In The China Shop. Asian Ceramics. Asian Ceram. February 2003.
- ^ Zisko, Allison (2020-04-21). "Lenox CEO Discusses N.C. Factory Shutdown". Home Furnishing News. Retrieved 2020-05-10.
- ISBN 1477309462, 9781477309469, google books
- ^ "Vegetarian Society - Fact Sheet - Veggie Aware A-Z". The Vegetarian Society of the United Kingdom Limited. Retrieved March 21, 2015.
External links
- Media related to Bone china at Wikimedia Commons