Deep-focus earthquake
A deep-focus earthquake in seismology (also called a plutonic earthquake) is an earthquake with a hypocenter depth exceeding 300 km. They occur almost exclusively at convergent boundaries in association with subducted oceanic lithosphere. They occur along a dipping tabular zone beneath the subduction zone known as the Wadati–Benioff zone.[1]
Discovery
Preliminary evidence for the existence of deep-focus earthquakes was first brought to the attention of the scientific community in 1922 by Herbert Hall Turner.[2] In 1928, Kiyoo Wadati proved the existence of earthquakes occurring well beneath the lithosphere, dispelling the notion that earthquakes occur only with shallow focal depths.[3]
Seismic characteristics
Deep-focus earthquakes give rise to minimal
Focal mechanisms
The pattern of energy radiation of an earthquake is represented by the
Physical process
Shallow-focus earthquakes are the result of the sudden release of
The following four subsections outline proposals which could explain the physical mechanism allowing deep focus earthquakes to occur. With the exception of solid-solid
Solid-solid phase transitions
The earliest proposed mechanism for the generation of deep-focus earthquakes is an
Dehydration embrittlement
Dehydration reactions of mineral phases with high water content would increase the
Transformational faulting or anticrack faulting
Transformational faulting, also known as anticrack faulting, is the result of the phase transition of a mineral to a higher-density phase occurring in response to shear stress in a fine-grained shear zone. The transformation occurs along the plane of maximal shear stress. Rapid shearing can then occur along these planes of weakness, giving rise to an earthquake in a mechanism similar to a shallow-focus earthquake.
Shear instability / thermal runaway
A shear instability arises when heat is produced by plastic deformation faster than it can be conducted away. The result is thermal runaway, a positive feedback loop of heating, material weakening, and strain localisation within the shear zone.[3] Continued weakening may result in partial melting along zones of maximal shear stress. Plastic shear instabilities leading to earthquakes have not been documented in nature, nor have they been observed in natural materials in the laboratory. Their relevance to deep earthquakes therefore lies in mathematical models which use simplified material properties and rheologies to simulate natural conditions.
Deep-focus earthquake zones
Major zones
Eastern Asia / Western Pacific
On the border of the
Philippines
A subduction zone makes up most of the border of Philippine Sea Plate and Sunda Plate, the fault being partially responsible for the uplift of the Philippines. The deepest sections of the Philippine Sea Plate cause earthquakes as deep as 675 kilometres (419 mi) below the surface.[7] Notable deep-focus earthquakes in this region include a Mw 7.7 earthquake in 1972 and the Mw 7.6, 7.5, and 7.3 2010 Mindanao earthquakes.
Indonesia
The Australian Plate subducts under the Sunda Plate, creating uplift over much of southern Indonesia, as well as earthquakes at depths of up to 675 kilometres (419 mi).[8] Notable deep-focus earthquakes in this region include a Mw 7.9 earthquake in 1996 and a Mw 7.5 earthquake in 2007.
Papua New Guinea / Fiji / New Zealand
By far the most active deep focus faulting zone in the world is that caused by the
Andes
The subduction of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate, in addition to creating the Andes mountain range, has also created a number of deep faults under the surfaces of Colombia, Peru, Brazil, Bolivia, Argentina, and even as far east as Paraguay.[11] Earthquakes frequently occur in the region at depths of up to 670 kilometres (420 mi) beneath the surface.[12] Several large earthquakes have taken place here, including the Mw 8.2 1994 Bolivia earthquake (631 km deep), the Mw 8.0 1970 Colombia earthquake (645 km deep), and Mw 7.9 1922 Peru earthquake (475 km deep).
Minor zones
Granada, Spain
Roughly 600–630 kilometres (370–390 mi) under the city Granada in southern Spain, several large earthquakes have been recorded in modern history, notably including a Mw 7.8 earthquake in 1954,[13] and a Mw 6.3 earthquake in 2010. The exact cause for the earthquakes remains unknown.[14]
Tyrrhenian Sea
The
Afghanistan
In northeastern Afghanistan, a number of medium-intensity deep focus earthquakes of depths of up to 400 kilometres (250 mi) occasionally occur.[17] They are caused by the collision and subduction of the Indian Plate under the Eurasian Plate, the deepest earthquakes centered on the furthest-subducted sections of the plate.[18]
South Sandwich Islands
The South Sandwich Islands between South America and Antarctica are host to a number of earthquakes up to 320 kilometres (200 mi) in depth.[19] They are caused by the subduction of the South American Plate under the South Sandwich Plate.[20]
Notable deep-focus earthquakes
The strongest deep-focus earthquake in seismic record was the magnitude 8.3 Okhotsk Sea earthquake that occurred at a depth of 609 km (378 mi) in 2013.[21] The deepest earthquake ever recorded was a small 4.2 earthquake in Vanuatu at a depth of 735.8 km (457.2 mi) in 2004.[22] However, although unconfirmed, an aftershock of the 2015 Ogasawara earthquake was found to have occurred at a depth of 751 km (467 mi).[23]
References
- ^ .
- .
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-82869-7.[page needed]
- S2CID 4206932.
- .
- ISBN 978-1-118-68808-3.[page needed]
- ^ "M 4.8 - Celebes Sea". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
- ^ "M 4.6 - Banda Sea". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
- ^ "M 4.2 - Vanuatu region". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
- ^ "Latest Earthquakes". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
- .
- ^ "M 3.7 - Acre, Brazil". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
- ^ "M 7.8 - Strait of Gibraltar". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
- ^ "An Enigma Deep Beneath Spain". seismo.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
- ^ "M 3.7 - Tyrrhenian Sea". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
- .
- ^ "M 5.0 - 4km SSE of Ashkasham, Afghanistan". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
- ^ "Cause of Afghan Quake Is a Deep Mystery". National Geographic News. 26 October 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
- ^ "M 4.3 - 132km NNW of Bristol Island, South Sandwich Islands". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
- .
- ^ "M8.3 - Sea of Okhotsk". USGS. 2013-05-25. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
- ^ "M 4.2 - Vanuatu region". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2018-01-22.
- ^ "Deepest earthquake ever detected struck 467 miles beneath Japan". National Geographic. October 26, 2021. Retrieved January 13, 2022.