Ion Călugăru
Ion Călugăru Ștrul Leiba Croitoru B. Croitoru | |
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Socialist Realism |
Ion Călugăru (Romanian pronunciation:
Shortly before the establishment of Romania's
Biography
Early life and debut
A native of
Shortly after
Together with Fondane and Pană, he was one of the regulars at the literary parties hosted by controversial businessman Alexandru Bogdan-Pitești.[9] The three became well acquainted with the avant-garde society of Bucharest. Their informal literary circle played host to by F. Brunea-Fox, Henri Gad, Armand Pascal, Claude Sernet-Cosma and Ilarie Voronca, as well as, on occasion, artists Iosif Ross and Nicolae Tonitza, and poet Claudia Millian.[10]
B. Croitoru received his first encouragements from critic Eugen Lovinescu, who published his texts in Sburătorul magazine. Lovinescu was a teacher at Matei Basarab, and decided to give employ his student as an editor and book reviewer.[4] He is credited with having coined and assigned Croitoru the pen name Ion Călugăru (from călugărul, "the monk").[5]
While with Sburătorul, Călugăru published some of his first autobiographical fragments, which were later integrated in some of his novels.
By January 1923, Călugăru was becoming involved with Fondane's theatrical company Insula. His texts were given public readings, but Insula dissolved itself before Călugăru could deliver his planned conference (on the life and work of Romania's traditionalist poet George Coșbuc).[13] His actual editorial debut came later that year, when he published Caii lui Cibicioc ("Cibicioc's Horses"), a volume of short stories.[14]
Contimporanul, unu and the socialist press
Shortly after this period, Călugăru became one of the contributors to
Around that time, Călugăru befriended poet Stephan Roll and, through him, made new contacts with Fondane, who had himself embraced Surrealism but was living at the time in France. The three were in correspondence, and, according to Roll's testimony, Călugăru was making efforts at establishing Fondane's reputation at home by reviewing his French-language poetry.[19] Călugăru's social networking with the avant-garde also earned him a profile among Bucharest's informal avant-garde salons. According to the personal recollections of art historian Amelia Pavel (at the time a high school student debuting on the social scene), Călugăru frequented the same social circle as cartoonist Saul Steinberg and poet Sesto Pals.[20]
In tandem, he was building connections with the militant socialist or communist groups: a contributor to the leftist platform Cuvântul Liber, Călugăru also sent his work to be published in more radical magazines sponsored by the outlawed Romanian Communist Party (PCR)—Reporter and Era Nouă, both edited by pro-PCR activist N. D. Cocea.[21] Himself a Marxist, Crohmălniceanu noted that Călugăru's gradual move toward a Marxist outlook was determined by his commitment to Surrealism. This path, he proposed, made Călugăru a voice similar to those of other left-wing Surrealists: Louis Aragon, Robert Desnos, Paul Éluard, Pablo Neruda internationally, Geo Bogza and Miron Radu Paraschivescu locally; but also that it made him stand in contrast to younger Surrealists who chose libertarian socialism (Gherasim Luca and Dolfi Trost).[22] Around 1937, Călugăru was also a columnist for Reporter, with a series of social and satirical pieces collectively titled Urangutania (from urangutan, Romanian for "orangutan").[23] He was also a sporadic contributor to writer Isac Ludo's leftist publication, Adam,[24] and had personal contacts with various leftist organizations representing the Jewish community.[16]
The leftist politicization of Romania's avant-garde and its connections with a banned party soon alarmed the political establishment: like other members of the unu faction, Călugăru was constantly monitored and informed upon by the
The dossier also includes the denunciations provided by Sergiu Dan's brother, Mihail, who had infiltrated the unu group. His notes document the conflict between Vinea's publications and the unu group from an interpersonal perspective: Mihail Dan alleged that Roll, together with his fellow writers Sașa Pană and Geo Bogza, exercised absolute control over unu, leading into an explicitly communist and artistically inferior direction.[16]
Integral theorist and film critic
The diverse allegiances affected Călugăru's literary work, being reflected in a new series of works, many of which were urban-themed and distinctly modernist. According to Crohmălniceanu's classification, the subsequent works fall into two main categories: on one hand, the urban-themed modernist novels, including Paradisul statistic ("Statistical Paradise", 1926), Omul de după ușă ("The Man behind the Door", 1931), Don Juan Cocoșatul ("Don Juan the Hunchback", 1934), Erdora (1934), alongside the 1935 short story collection De la cinci până la cinci ("From Five to Five"); on the other, the writings with rural or mixed rural-urban subjects—Abecedar de povestiri populare ("A Primer of Folk Stories", 1930), Copilăria unui netrebnic (1936), Trustul ("The Trust", 1937), Lumina primăverii ("The Light of Spring", 1947).[25]
In joining the common effort of Integral writers, Călugăru threw his support behind a literary movement that viewed itself as both urban and innovative, theorizing connections between the creative human and the modern rhythms of technology.
Like other staff members of Integral, he also contemplated a new role for theater. Shunning the
Călugăru's theory on
Cuvântul years
Despite gravitating around the radical left and the artistic avant-garde, Ion Călugăru pursued his collaboration with the increasingly
Călugăru regularly published two or three articles per Cuvântul issue.[42] He preserved his editorial position up to 1934, when the newspaper was abruptly banned by the government of King Carol II for offering support to the violent fascist movement known as the Iron Guard.[43] One of his contributions for the newspaper was the theatrical column, when he filled in for the regular reviewer, Alexandru Kirițescu. This assignment made Călugăru a main protagonist of a 1929 scandal. It was sparked by his highly critical and sarcastic reception of Rodia de aur ("The Golden Pomegranate"), the play co-written by Păstorel Teodoreanu and Adrian Maniu, and culminated with reports that Teodoreanu took revenge by seeking out and physically assaulting Călugăru at his Cuvântul desk.[44] Călugăru later filed a legal complaint against his alleged aggressor, claiming that Păstorel had also made death threats against him.[44] According to writer Vlaicu Bârna, who places the "embarrassing scene" in relation to another one of Păstorel's works, Teodoreanu was proud of assaulting his reviewer, whom he called an "ass".[45] In 1932, Călugăru also played a part in the major cultural debate surrounding literature, censorship and pornography, voicing his opinions on the first Romanian edition of D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover.[46]
As his private diaries show, Călugăru had a complex relationship with Ionescu. Literary historian Cornelia Ștefănescu, who researched the notebooks, described the 1930s Călugăru as a suspicious and insecure intellectual, and noted that this character trait somehow affected the contacts between him and his antisemitic employer—although Călugăru accepted Ionescu's invitations to supper, he feared that the far right figure was secretly despising him.
According to Iron Guard member and journalist N. Roșu, Călugăru and Sebastian were among those called upon by Ionescu in autumn 1933, to be informed that the paper was backing revolutionary fascism. Commenting on this testimony, cultural historian
The dichotomy between Călugăru and his employers was the subject of public debate in the early 1930s, as reported by Vlaicu Bârna. Bârna recalled comments from various journalists, including another one of Călugăru's far right colleagues,
Călugăru's permutations were registered with skepticism by his Surrealist colleagues—notably Stephan Roll, who criticized Călugăru's positioning in a 1934 letter to their mentor Fondane. Roll, who noted that his friend had just married a female painter who was both "funny and intelligent", mentioned the financial difficulties Călugăru was facing after Cuvântul had been shut down.[43] Nevertheless, he also suggested that Călugăru had relied on his trust for Ionescu, who had even "impressed him" with his intelligence, adding: "Călugăru never had the courage of taking a clear stand. He is rather humble and a victim of all those generations of persecuted people that he carries within him. I tried to bring him over to my side, I tried to reach out my hand. He took distance. Ever since, I've been leaving him be, I rarely see him, but I pity his fate."[43] The secret reports signed by Mihail Dan describe Călugăru's gradual distancing from the unu group, congratulating him, Brunea-Fox and Voronca for having taken their leave from "the cloaca".[16]
During and after World War II
Ion Călugăru survived
Sebastian wrote that his friend was dismissing rumors about the Nazi-led attack on the Soviet Union, which was being secretly prepared with Antonescu's support. Călugăru claimed that this account was British manipulation, suggesting that "if Hitler dared to attack the Russians he would be crushed."[53] Still, Călugăru stood out among Romanian Jews for condemning passive compliance with Antonescu's orders, asking his coreligionists not to recognize the collaborationist Central Jewish Office.[54]
Călugăru found himself promoted by the new authorities after the
Shortly afterward, as the PCR gained momentum with Soviet support, Călugăru was one of the ten authors to be instated or reinstated as members of the
At around the same time, Călugăru also began working as an editor for Scînteia, the main PCR platform, while still writing for the pro-communist Contemporanul and Viața Românească.[1] Perceived as an authority on ideological matters, he was one of the publicist employed by Editura Cartea Rusă, a state-run institution which exclusively published works of Russian and Soviet literature.[60]
His works for the period include the short story collection Am dat ordin să tragă ("I Gave the Order to Fire", 1947), the plays Ion și Salomeia ("Ion and Salomeia", 1947) and Clovnul care gîndește ("The Thinking Clown", 1949), and the 1951 Oțel și pîine.
Ion Călugăru died in Bucharest only four years later, on May 22, 1956.[1] His unpublished novellas and sketch stories were collected by his former unu colleague Sașa Pană, who released them under the title Casa șoarecilor ("House of Mice", 1958).[65]
Work
Early writings
According to Ovid Crohmălniceanu, Călugăru produced "the most substantial" literature among those interwar modernists who drew inspiration from observing isolated social environments.
Caii lui Cibicioc, the first volume published by Ion Călugăru, was also the first of several works to focus on its author's rural background. Several of the stories, reminiscent of Creangă,[67] are jocular accounts of childhood. They include the title work, which shows the youngsters Ițe and Șămă casually plotting to steal the eponymous horses.[68] This stream is combined with more dramatic accounts, such as the piece in which Hakham Șmaia, unable to impose his paternal will, commits suicide.[3] Călinescu also argued: "The most personal part in the literature of Ion Călugăru [...] is the one dealing with the Jewry of upper Moldavia. [...] In Caii lui Cibicioc and in Abecedar de povestiri populare the depiction is still shy or ruined by Surrealist methods. Still, even at this stage one will be struck by this strange, almost peasant-like, world, comprising forecarriage drivers, millers, porters, cabmen, water-carriers, shepherds, vagrant children, talkative old women."[68] The same commentator added: "The hakhams, the synagogue janitors, the bath house attendants and the tailors do not manage to shatter the image of an autochthonous village. Only the candle lights visible inside houses [...], the old payot-wearing men on their way back from the synagogue, book in hand, everyone's allusions to biblical times, allow one's eyes to identify the distinct race."[68]
Shortly after being published, the narratives were positively reviewed by Călugăru's mentors and Contimporanul colleagues
The avant-garde years
While contributing to Integral, Ion Călugăru also began his relationship with experimental literature. The early products of this new preoccupation were prose fragments like Domnișoara Lot ("Miss Lot"), which used intertextuality, reworking themes borrowed from classical works of literature, in a manner also employed at the time by his colleague Jacques G. Costin.[74] Like Vinea, Felix Aderca and Adrian Maniu, Călugăru was thought by some to be indebted to the early avant-garde figure Urmuz. This view was criticized by Călugăru's contemporary, modernist literary chronicler Perpessicius, who noted that all these authors had matured before Urmuz was even discovered by the literary establishment, and as such that they could not be considered Urmuz's pupils (an assessment described by Cernat as "singular, although somewhat amendable").[75] In contrast, Perpessicius' colleague Pompiliu Constantinescu included Călugăru among those modernists who incorporated Urmuz's brand of absurdism in works they wrote well into their careers.[76] According to Cernat, Călugăru's texts, like those of his various colleagues, have assimilated the "Urmuz effect".[77]
Călugăru's subsequent work in the novel genre was considered important, but less accomplished than his novellas, by literary chronicler Pericle Martinescu.[78] With Paradisul statistic, Crohmălniceanu suggests, Călugăru was outlining a "cosmic and apocalyptic" vision indebted to "Expressionist aesthetics" and composed with "remarkable consistency and originality".[25] In Crohmălniceanu's view, the book served to illustrate Călugăru's period with Contimporanul, and the influence of "Constructivism" as defined by Ion Vinea: like Vinea and Costin, Călugăru believed that objective prose was the object of journalism rather than literature, and, while his two colleagues explored parody, he opened his work to the grotesque.[79] The same critic argued that, while the urban-themed novels were usually radically different in style when compared to the other half of Călugăru's 1930s writings, a crossover was still observable in Abecedar de povestiri populare, in Omul de după ușă, in Don Juan Cocoșatul and in Erdora—in the latter two, around the theme of "the ghetto condition".[25] Such works introduce motifs related to social alienation, and were described by George Călinescu as "tiny biographies of the interior man", with a type of "sarcasm" that echoed the novels of Călugăru's modernist contemporary, Aderca.[80] In Zalis' view, they speak of a "humanity that is hilariously dislocated", but are nonetheless distanced from pure avant-garde scenarios, since Călugăru masks any stylistic tension through "corrosiveness".[66] Instead, Zalis suggests, he had acquired from his years as a leftist journalist the need to weigh events against the opinions of a focal character.[66]
Charlie Blum, the protagonist of Omul de după ușă, investigates his actions with objectivity and sarcasm, trying to place his analytical self "behind the door".
In Don Juan Cocoșatul, the hunchback hero, Pablo Ghligal, finds himself an object of female erotic and morbid curiosity, but is nevertheless marginalized socially.
Through Ghilghal's sexual affairs, readers are introduced to a world of vice and opulence, where, Călinescu notes, people are "neurotic" and "sexual aberrations" omnipresent.[80] This part of the book is also thought to include a portrait of Călugăru's former patron, Alexandru Bogdan-Pitești, under the guise of a lecherous aristocrat named Alexandru Lăpușneanu.[81] The image this character projects is complex, as noted by Călinescu. The literary historian noted that Lăpușneanu blends in him: "the dignity in gossip, the boyar carriage, the refinement that the apparent vulgarity cannot bring to ruin, the blasé and cynical lechery".[80] In Călinescu's view, the volume errs in not focusing more on such aspects, "but even as such some interior scenes are memorable".[80] The category, he notes, includes the scuffle between cats and dogs inside the manorial estate, the visit paid by Lăpușneanu's scantly clad wife to a battlefield, and the comedy surrounding Lăpușneanu's confession to his priest.[80]
Copilăria unui netrebnic
A similar mix of environments and styles is present in Copilăria unui netrebnic. The first of three semi-autobiographical novel tracing the early life of Călugăru's
The book explored further Călugăru's connection to his Jewish Moldavian homeland, producing the personal history of an early 20th-century
These are complemented by various
The public's tendency of defining Călugăru, and his contemporary I. Peltz as novelists prone to illustrating Jewish specificity was already manifesting itself in the period after the novel saw print. Although an admirer of both Călugăru and Peltz, Mihail Sebastian was alarmed by this trend, and feared that his own novels, which focused on more existential themes, would be ascribed to the same category.[87] Reviewing Copilăria unui netrebnic's "ethnographic aspects", and judging them to be "often remarkable", Manolescu added: "Unfortunately, Ion Călugăru does not know how to extract from the specificity of the race and location that human universality that we find in genius writers like Joseph Roth or Bashevis-Singer."[82]
The timelessness of shtetl society contrasts with episodes which introduce history in the form of major upheavals: the
The stories and novellas comprised in De la cinci până la cinci also drew attention for their portrayal of socialist rebelliousness and their overall advocacy of leftist values. According to Pericle Martinescu, these works "revive" the Romanian novella genre, reconnecting it with its sources and evidencing a storyteller of "accomplished talent".
Călugăru and Socialist Realism
Ion Călugăru's ultimate affiliation with Socialist Realism was widely interpreted as having produced the weakest section of his work. This critical interpretation was espoused even before the end of communism, during a period of liberalization and aesthetic reevaluation. In this context, Crohmălniceanu argued that Călugăru's late works "no longer explore, to their disadvantage, [the] precious lode in Ion Călugăru's literature."[61] This is also noted by historian Lucian Boia, who writes: "To be a leftist used to signify nonconformity; now, quite contrarily, to be a leftist is to show conformism." Moreover, Boia writes, there was "no longer anything specifically Jewish" in Călugăru's attitudes.[59]
Other authors have retrospectively questioned Călugăru's overall value, taking in view his political status. According to historian and novelist
Literary critic Iulia Popovici described the novel as propaganda to legitimize "the socialist present", also noting that it was the only such work in which the two dominant themes, "constructing socialism in the village" and "constructing socialism in the city", overlapped.
The author's participation in Socialist Realism nevertheless came with a measure of conflict between Călugăru and other members of the new literary establishment. In the late 1940s, the writer kept a private diary, which documents his trips to
In 1952, Călugăru's name was cited by official novelist and critic
Casa șoarecilor
The Casa șoarecilor pieces, which are the last stories ever published under Ion Călugăru's name, do not comply with the Socialist Realist canon. The volume's first section, titled Schițe fără umor ("Humorless Sketches"), comprise literary portraits and musings. Critic Simona Vasilache notes that such fragments revolve around the author's subjective perception of the world: "Not all the phrases make sense, not all the scenes have depth, that being because Călugăru's search is not one for clarity but, quite the contrary, for the vapor. The sensation of memory, more precious than the reasoned test of memory."[65] The volume, she notes, comprises elements from all the stages in Călugăru's early career, from "the lyrical exercises of youth" to "lively dialogues, written with good craftsmanship".[65] The stories mark a return to Călugăru's preoccupation with rural and suburban life. They introduce characters who live meager existence on the margin of society, such as the Tatar Mahmud, hanged on cherry tree, and the philosophical Jewish salesman Șmelche.[65] One piece, believed by Vasilache to echo the sketches of Romania's 19th century classic Ion Luca Caragiale, shows a female shopkeeper on the night of her husband's death, struggling between closing the establishment to mark his death or keeping it open to pay for his funeral.[65] Other fragments resurrect Buiumaș and some other protagonists of Copilăria.... The eponymous story begins with the boy and his mother inquiring about a possible inheritance from a relative in Japan, and culminates in describing the hypnotic effect of mice swarming around the local post office.[65] One other short narrative shows Buiumaș lecturing his playmates about justice and sin, described by Vasilache as a strange outcome: "A child would have found any other means. That is why the sketches' endings are puzzling, depicting, with stinginess in words and even more stinginess in deeds, a world that is no longer itself."[65]
The second half of Casa șoarecilor comprises novellas such as Sfințenia lui Veniamin Jidovul ("The Holiness of Veniamin the Jew")—described by Vasilache as "a vanitas vanitatum just as hasty, just as cruel as is the world of [Schițe fără umor], with barbaric shindigs, indifferent to death, living through the pointless momentary torments."[65] These stories rely heavily on documenting the person's imaginary universe, as is the case with Firi neînțelese ("Misunderstood Characters") and Conflictul meu cu Portugalia ("My Conflict with Portugal").[65] Vasilache notes: "These are merely projected ideas, grouped together by a not so tightly knit web of a narrative. [...] Random matches, over which blows an avant-garde wind."[65]
Legacy
Ion Călugăru's Socialist Realist work, like other writings by his peers, fell out of favor in the 1970s and '80s:
During the Ceaușescu years, Călugăru's rival Dumitriu also parted with Socialist Realism and began writing more unconventional stories. Literary historian Ion Vartic, who proposes that Dumitriu built his new career on plagiarism, notes that many of his short stories and novels incorporated real-life stories told by his elder Ion Vinea. Vartic concludes that one such short piece, published by Dumitriu under the title Cafiné, is an "erotic farce" played on Ion Călugăru at some point during the interwar period.[100]
Mentions of Călugăru's life are also present in Mircea Eliade's Autobiography, written during Eliade's self-exile and teaching career at the University of Chicago. Eliade notably describes his meeting with the Cuvântul journalist, recalling his surprise that Călugăru's everyday vocabulary seemed to be quoting avant-garde stories by Urmuz or Sașa Pană.[49] Recalling her 1971 meeting with Eliade on American soil, Romanian poet Constanța Buzea wrote: "[Eliade] asks if Ion Călugăru has an echo among us, today. Upon being told that this isn't the case, he turns grim. He says he regrets, he never knew, he could not predict that, in one way or another, sooner or later, one's mistakes are paid with the others' indifference and silence..."[101]
Călugăru's texts affected the visual experiments of his friend
Notes
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j (in Romanian) Ion Călugăru, Ioan Lăcustă, "Uzina care încearcă să gonească morții". Note nepublicate (1948), at the Memoria Digital Library; retrieved February 17, 2010
- ^ ISBN 978-973-630-189-6
- ^ a b c Călinescu, p.795; Crohmălniceanu, p.346
- ^ ISBN 973-8294-72-X
- ^ a b (in Romanian) Ioana Pârvulescu, "Personajul episodic iese în față", in România Literară, Nr. 16/2002
- ^ a b Crohmălniceanu, p.346
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.34, 36, 276
- ^ Boia, p.34
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.34, 39; Crohmălniceanu, p.346, 347
- OCLC 252065138
- ^ a b Răileanu & Carassou, p.150
- ^ a b (in Romanian) Paul Cernat, "Măștile ludice ale lui Julian Barnes sau Comedii polițiste de moravuri", in Observator Cultural, Nr. 364, March 2007
- ^ Cernat, p.273
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.76; Crohmălniceanu, p.346
- ^ Răileanu & Carassou, p.167
- ^ a b c d e f (in Romanian) Paul Cernat, "Subterana politică a avangardei românești", in Observator Cultural, Nr. 417, April 2008
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.239-244, 413; Crohmălniceanu, p.65-66, 166, 346
- ^ (in Romanian) Geo Șerban, "Causeries du lundi" Archived 2015-09-24 at the Wayback Machine, in România Literară, Nr. 25/2000
- ^ Răileanu & Carassou, p.99, 107
- ^ (in Romanian) Amelia Pavel, "Prieteni din anii '30" Archived 2012-03-11 at the Wayback Machine, in România Literară, Nr. 30/2003
- ^ Crohmălniceanu, p.153, 166, 346
- ^ Crohmălniceanu, p.73
- ^ Crohmălniceanu, p.158
- ^ Crohmălniceanu, p.345
- ^ a b c d e Crohmălniceanu, p.347
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.225; Răileanu & Carassou, p.150
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.286-292
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.278; Răileanu & Carassou, p.150
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.278, 289; Răileanu & Carassou, p.150
- ^ a b Cernat, Avangarda..., p.289
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.277-278
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.278
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.239, 262
- ^ Cernat, p.239
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.275
- ^ (in Romanian) Irina Cărăbaș, "M. H. Maxy – artistul integralist", in Observator Cultural, Nr. 243, October 2004
- ^ Călinescu, p.889
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.34, 149
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.149
- ^ (in Romanian) Ioana Pârvulescu, "Cuvântul și cuvintele lui Sebastian" Archived 2012-03-11 at the Wayback Machine, in România Literară, Nr. 30/2009
- ^ Boia, p.34, 44
- ^ a b c d e f (in Romanian) Al. Săndulescu, "Un istoric literar de vocație", in România Literară, Nr. 2/2004
- ^ a b c Răileanu & Carassou, p.115
- ^ a b (in Romanian) Dumitru Hîncu, "Acum optzeci de ani - Bătaie la Cuvântul" Archived 2012-03-11 at the Wayback Machine, in România Literară, Nr. 44/2009
- ^ a b c (in Romanian) Vlaicu Bârna, Evocări: Braseria Corso, at the Memoria Digital Library; retrieved March 8, 2011
- ^ (in Romanian) Gheorghe Grigurcu, "Despre pornografie" Archived 2008-12-01 at the Wayback Machine, in România Literară, Nr. 2/2007
- ^ (in Romanian) Paul Cernat, "Actualitatea cazului Sebastian", in Revista 22, Nr. 1018, September 2009
- ISBN 973-9155-43-X
- ^ a b (in Romanian) Ioana Pârvulescu, "Poemul din pudrieră", in România Literară, Nr. 36/2001
- ^ (in Romanian) Stelian Tănase, "Belu Zilber (II)", in Revista 22, Nr. 701, August 2003
- ^ Boia, p.60-62
- ^ (in Romanian) Ion Simuț, "Liviu Rebreanu: o conștiință politică vulnerabilă" Archived 2015-09-24 at the Wayback Machine, in România Literară, Nr. 6/2000
- ^ a b c Sebastian, p.368
- ISBN 1-4039-9341-6
- ^ Sebastian, p.611
- Z. Ornea, "Imaginea unei vremi încrîncenate" Archived 2012-03-11 at the Wayback Machine, in România Literară, Nr. 24/2000
- ^ Vasile, p.79
- ^ Selejan, p.154
- ^ a b Boia, p.295
- ^ (in Romanian) Letiția Constantin, "Literatură și propagandă: Editura Cartea Rusă" Archived 2009-09-22 at the Wayback Machine, in România Literară, Nr. 25/2009
- ^ a b c d e Crohmălniceanu, p.350
- ^ Vasile, p.105
- ^ Selejan, p.132-134
- ^ Vasile, p.92-94, 98
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j (in Romanian) Simona Vasilache, "Poezii, în fond", in România Literară, Nr. 45/2008
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m (in Romanian) Henri Zalis, "Apropieri de o moștenire diferențiată" Archived 2009-03-08 at the Wayback Machine, in Convorbiri Literare, August 2004
- ^ a b Cernat, Avangarda..., p.76, 143; Crohmălniceanu, p.346
- ^ a b c d e f g Călinescu, p.795
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.34
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.36
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.76, 143
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.143
- ^ a b Cernat, Avangarda..., p.225
- ^ a b (in Romanian) Dan Gulea, "Jacques Costin, avangardistul", in Observator Cultural, Nr. 181, August 2003
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.348
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.349
- ^ Cernat, Avangarda..., p.345
- ^ a b (in Romanian) Pericle Martinescu, "Discuții și recenzii. Ion Călugăru", in Societatea de Mâine, Nr. 2/1936, p.43 (digitized by the Babeș-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library)
- ^ Crohmălniceanu, p.63-64
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Călinescu, p.796
- ^ a b c Călinescu, p.796; Crohmălniceanu, p.347
- ^ a b c d e f (in Romanian) Nicolae Manolescu, "Romane uitate" Archived 2012-03-11 at the Wayback Machine, in România Literară, Nr. 34/2006
- ^ a b Crohmălniceanu, p.348
- ^ a b Călinescu, p.795; Crohmălniceanu, p.348
- ^ a b c d Crohmălniceanu, p.349
- ^ Călinescu, p.795-796
- ^ (in Romanian) Leon Volovici, "Insula lui Mihail Sebastian. București, 1939-1944", in Apostrof, Nr. 11/2007
- ^ Crohmălniceanu, p.349-350
- ^ (in Romanian) Iulia Deleanu, "Epoca interbelică – refolosirea balanței", in Observator Cultural, Nr. 406, January 2008
- ^ Crohmălniceanu, p.153-154
- ^ a b (in Romanian) Iulia Popovici, "Literatura contemporană în manualele anilor '60-'80", in România Literară, Nr. 26/2002
- ^ (in Romanian) Ion Simuț, "Canonul literar proletcultist (II)" Archived 2011-02-28 at the Wayback Machine, in România Literară, Nr. 28/2008
- ^ (in Romanian) Al. Săndulescu, "Literatura română și comunismul", in România Literară, Nr. 34/2006
- ^ Selejan, p.35-38
- ^ Selejan, p.59, 133
- ^ (in Romanian) Alex. Ștefănescu, "Literatură scrisă la comandă" Archived 2011-11-09 at the Wayback Machine, in România Literară, Nr. 27/2005
- ^ Selejan, p.153
- ^ Selejan, p.333
- ^ (in Romanian) Ion Simuț, "Gelozia maladivă", in România Literară, Nr. 43/2005
- ^ (in Romanian) Ion Vartic, "Petru Dumitriu și 'negrul' său (II)" Archived 2012-03-11 at the Wayback Machine, in România Literară, Nr. 16/2005
- ^ (in Romanian) Constanța Buzea, "Întâlniri la Chicago", in România Literară, Nr. 9/2007
- ^ Cultural item description, at the Institute for Cultural Memory Archived 2010-09-19 at the Wayback Machine; retrieved February 17, 2010
References
- ISBN 978-973-50-3533-4
- George Călinescu, Istoria literaturii române de la origini pînă în prezent, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1986
- ISBN 978-973-23-1911-6
- OCLC 490001217
- ISBN 2-84272-057-1
- ISBN 0-7126-8388-7
- ISBN 978-973-23-1961-1
- Cristian Vasile, Literatura și artele în România comunistă. 1948-1953, Humanitas, Bucharest, 2010. ISBN 978-973-50-2773-5