Malayalam grammar

). Malayalam adjectives, adverbs, postpositions, and conjunctions do not undergo any inflection; they are invariant.

Nouns

The

.

Pronouns

There are three

, singular formal and plural. Of these, the singular formal and, plural forms are similar. A fourth form ('respectful' or 'official') is sometimes used in certain official documents and announcements.

The third person has eight forms – proximal and distal forms of singular masculine, singular feminine, singular neutral and plural. The masculine and feminine genders are used for humans and anthropomorphised non-humans. Non-living objects, plants and most animals take the neutral gender. The plural form is used for multiple objects of any gender. The plural form can also be used for a single person to show respect or because the gender is unknown or irrelevant.

Personal Pronoun

			singular	plural
1st person	Exclusive		ഞാൻ ñān̠ ഞാൻ ñān̠ I	ഞങ്ങൾ ñaṅṅaḷ ഞങ്ങൾ ñaṅṅaḷ we
	Inclusive			നാം nām / / നമ്മൾ nammaḷ നാം / നമ്മൾ nām / nammaḷ we
2nd person	Informal		നീ nī നീ nī you	നിങ്ങൾ niṅṅaḷ നിങ്ങൾ niṅṅaḷ you (all)
	Formal		നിങ്ങൾ niṅṅaḷ നിങ്ങൾ niṅṅaḷ you
	'Respectful' / 'Official'		താങ്കൾ tāṅkaḷ താങ്കൾ tāṅkaḷ you
3rd person	Proximal	Masculine	ഇവൻ ivan̠ ഇവൻ ivan̠ (this) he	ഇവർ ivar̠ ഇവർ ivar̠ (this) they
		Feminine	ഇവൾ ivaḷ ഇവൾ ivaḷ (this) she
		Neutral	ഇത് itŭ ഇത് itŭ (this) it
	Distal	Masculine	അവൻ avan̠ അവൻ avan̠ (that) he	അവർ avar̠ അവർ avar̠ (that) they
		Feminine	അവൾ avaḷ അവൾ avaḷ (that) she
		Neutral	അത് atŭ അത് atŭ (that) it

Cases

, as the only pronominal vocatives that are used are the third person ones, which only occur in compounds.

Singular

Case വിഭക്തി	1st person	2nd person		3rd person (distal)[note 1]
		informal	formal	masculine	feminine	neutral
Nominative നിർദ്ദേശിക	ഞാൻ ñāṉ	നീ nī	നിങ്ങൾ niṅṅaḷ	അവൻ avaṉ (voc. avaṉē)	അവൾ avaḷ (voc. avaḷē)	അത് atŭ (voc. atiṉē)
Accusative പ്രതിഗ്രാഹിക	എന്നെ eṉṉe	നിന്നെ niṉṉe	നിങ്ങളെ niṅṅaḷe	അവനെ avaṉe	അവളെ avaḷe	അതിനെ atiṉe
Genitive സംബന്ധിക	എന്റെ/എൻ/എന്നുടെ eṉṯe/eṉ/eṉṉuṭe	നിന്റെ/നിൻ/നിന്നുടെ niṉṯe/niṉ/niṉṉuṭe	നിങ്ങളുടെ niṅṅaḷuṭe	അവന്റെ/അവനുടെ avaṉṯe/avaṉuṭe	അവളുടെ avaḷuṭe	അതിന്റെ atiṉṯe
Dative ഉദ്ദേശിക	എനിക്ക് eṉikkŭ	നിനക്ക് niṉakkŭ	നിങ്ങൾക്ക് niṅṅaḷkkŭ	അവന് avaṉŭ	അവൾക്ക് avaḷkkŭ	അതിന് atiṉŭ
Instrumental പ്രായോജിക	എന്നാൽ eṉṉāl	നിന്നാൽ niṉṉāl	നിങ്ങളാൽ niṅṅaḷāl	അവനാൽ avaṉāl	അവളാൽ avaḷāl	അതിനാൽ atiṉāl
Locative ആധാരിക	എന്നിൽ eṉṉil	നിന്നിൽ niṉṉil	നിങ്ങളിൽ niṅṅaḷil	അവനിൽ avaṉil	അവളിൽ avaḷil	അതിൽ atil
Sociative സംയോജിക	എന്നോട് eṉṉōṭŭ	നിന്നോട് niṉṉōṭŭ	നിങ്ങളോട് niṅṅaḷōṭŭ	അവനോട് avaṉōṭŭ	അവളോട്‌ avaḷōṭŭ	അതിനോട് atiṉōtŭ
Notes: ^ For proximal form, replace the initial 'a' with an 'i'.

Plural

Case വിഭക്തി	1st person		2nd person	3rd person
	exclusive	inclusive
Nominative നിർദ്ദേശിക	ഞങ്ങൾ ñaṅṅaḷ	നാം/നമ്മൾ nām/nammaḷ	നിങ്ങൾ niṅṅaḷ	അവർ avaṟ (voc. avarē)
Accusative പ്രതിഗ്രാഹിക	ഞങ്ങളെ ñaṅṅaḷe	നമ്മളെ nammaḷe	നിങ്ങളെ niṅṅaḷe	അവരെ avare
Genitive സംബന്ധിക	ഞങ്ങളുടെ/ഞങ്ങുടെ ñaṅṅaḷuṭe/ñaṅṅuṭe	നമ്മളുടെ/നമ്മുടെ nammaḷuṭe/nammuṭe	നിങ്ങളുടെ niṅṅaḷuṭe	അവരുടെ avaruṭe
Dative ഉദ്ദേശിക	ഞങ്ങൾക്ക് ñaṅṅaḷkkŭ	നമ്മൾക്ക്/നമുക്ക് nammaḷkkŭ/namukkŭ	നിങ്ങൾക്ക് niṅṅaḷkkŭ	അവർക്ക് avaṟkkŭ
Instrumental പ്രായോജിക	ഞങ്ങളാൽ ñaṅṅaḷāl	നമ്മളാൽ nammaḷāl	നിങ്ങളാൽ niṅṅaḷāl	അവരാൽ avarāl
Locative ആധാരിക	ഞങ്ങളിൽ ñaṅṅaḷil	നമ്മളിൽ nammaḷil	നിങ്ങളിൽ niṅṅaḷil	അവരിൽ avaril
Sociative സംയോജിക	ഞങ്ങളോട് ñaṅṅaḷōṭŭ	നമ്മളോട് nammaḷōṭŭ	നിങ്ങളോട് niṅṅaḷōṭŭ	അവരോട് avarōṭŭ

The mnemonic 'നിപ്രസം ഉപ്രസം ആ' created by combining the first sounds of the case names is used.

Number

The suffix -കൾ (-kaḷ), which changes to -ങ്ങൾ (-ṅṅaḷ) when the nouns ends in -അം (-aṁ), is the most common suffix for denoting plural nouns. It is used by all inanimate nouns, concrete or abstract, and most animate, non-gendered nouns. Two other suffixes, -മാർ (-māṟ) and അർ (-aṟ), are used exclusively by a few animate nouns. All suffixes follow the sandhi (സന്ധി) rules where applicable, and are not used when preceded by numeral adjectives. The following are a few examples.

Word	Singular	Plural
book	പുസ്തകം (pustakaṁ)	പുസ്തകങ്ങൾ (pustakaṅṅaḷ)
umbrella	കുട (kuṭa)	കുടകൾ (kuṭakaḷ)
child	കുട്ടി (kuṭṭi)	കുട്ടികൾ (kuṭṭikaḷ)
dog	നായ (nāya)	നായ്ക്കൾ/നായകൾ (nāykkaḷ/nāyakaḷ)
mother	അമ്മ (amma)	അമ്മമാർ (ammamāṟ)
human	മനുഷ്യൻ (manuṣyaṉ)	മനുഷ്യർ (manuṣyaṟ)
fish	മീൻ (mīṉ)	മീനുകൾ (mīṉukaḷ)

Other nouns

The following are examples of some of the most common declensional patterns.

Word	tree		elephant		human		dog
Case	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	maram	maraṅṅaḷ	āṉa	āṉakaḷ	maṉuṣyaṉ	maṉuṣyaṟ	paṭṭi	paṭṭikaḷ
Vocative	maramē	maraṅṅaḷē	āṉē	āṉakaḷē	maṉuṣyā	maṉuṣyarē	paṭṭī	paṭṭikaḷē
Accusative	marattiṉe	maraṅṅaḷe	āṉaye	āṉakaḷe	maṉuṣyaṉe	maṉuṣyare	paṭṭiye	paṭṭikaḷe
Genitive	marattiṉṯe	maraṅṅaḷuṭe	āṉayuṭe	āṉakaḷuṭe	maṉuṣyaṉṯe	maṉuṣyaruṭe	paṭṭiyuṭe	paṭṭikaḷuṭe
Dative	marattiṉŭ	maraṅṅaḷkkŭ	āṉaykkŭ	āṉakaḷkku	maṉuṣyaṉŭ	maṉuṣyaṟkkŭ	paṭṭikkŭ	paṭṭikaḷkku
Instrumental	marattāl	maraṅṅaḷāl	āṉayāl	āṉakaḷāl	maṉuṣyaṉāl	maṉuṣyarāl	paṭṭiyāl	paṭṭikaḷāl
Locative	marattil	maraṅṅaḷil	āṉayil	āṉakaḷil	maṉuṣyaṉil	maṉuṣyaril	paṭṭiyil	paṭṭikaḷil
Sociative	marattōṭŭ	maraṅṅaḷōṭŭ	āṉayōṭŭ	āṉakaḷōṭŭ	maṉuṣyaṉōṭŭ	maṉuṣyarōṭŭ	paṭṭiyōṭŭ	paṭṭikaḷōṭŭ

Adjectives

Malayalam is thought to have no semantic category for adjectives, and instead relies heavily on using participial relative clauses for modifying nouns.^[1] There are two classes of words that typically act as adjectives.^[2]

1. Native roots + a: This includes words such as നല്ല (nalla, good), വലിയ (valiya, big), and ചെറിയ (ceṟiya, short). All such words can be directly used as adjectives, without further modification. The conventional view regarding this category of words is that they typically encode the possession of the property they signify in the participial marker (-a) attached to them, meaning a word such as നല്ല (nalla) would actually mean "having goodness". For instance: ഇതൊരു നല്ല പുസ്തകമാണ് (itoru nalla pustakamāṇŭ), translating to "this is a good book", could be thought to mean "this is a goodness-having book". Note that when used in typical relative clauses, the marker -a can be inflected for tense, but not when used here in an adjectival sense.
2. Borrowed roots + am: This includes words such as സങ്കടം (saṅkaṭaṁ, sadness), സന്തോഷം (santōṣaṁ, happiness), and ഉയരം (uyaraṁ, height/tallness). The -am at the end signifies the word's quality as a noun, which means that to use it as an adjective it has to be modified. This is in the form of -ഉള്ള (uḷḷa), the suffix for the non-finite existential copula. For instance: അവൻ ഉയരമുള്ള കുട്ടിയാണ് (avaṉ uyaramuḷḷa kuṭṭiyāṇŭ, translating to "he is a tall child") could be thought to mean "he is a tallness-having child". Since the suffix is non-finite it does not vary with tense or person.

Verbs

Inflection of Malayalam verbs occurs for tense, aspect, and mode (TAM), and not for number (plurality) or gender. The dictionary form of verbs typically have the ending -ഉക (-uka), although some verbs have the ending ഇക (-ika) too.^[3]

Tenses

Broadly, there are three tenses in Malayalam language: present, past and future. Verb forms in different tenses are created by either simply replacing the citation form ending (for present and future tense), or by suffixing the verb stem (obtained by removing the citation form ending and the preceding consonant) with a special marker depending on the class of the verb (for past tense).

Present tense

The present tense is formed by replacing the citation form ending with -ഉന്നു (-unnu). For example, the present tense form of പറയുക (paṟayuka, 'to say') is പറയുന്നു (paṟayunnu).

Future tense

The future tense is formed by replacing the citation form ending with -ഉം (-um). For example, the future tense form of നടക്കുക (naṭakkuka, 'to walk') is നടക്കും (naṭakkum).

Past tense

For most verbs the marker -ഇ (-i) (or യി, (-yi) if the verb stem ends in a vowel) is added to the verb stem to create the past tense form, but other verb classes have different rules. A non-exhaustive list of the rules for different classes, as well as some exceptions, is given below.

• If the citation form of the verb ends in a short vowel followed by -ടുക (-ṭuka) – that is, if it ends in -അടുക (-aṭuka), -ഇടുക (-iṭuka), -ഉടുക (-uṭuka), -എടുക (-eṭuka), or -ഒടുക (-oṭuka) – then replace the -ടുക at the end with -ട്ടു (-ṭṭu). For example, the past form of ഇടുക (iṭuka, 'to put'), is ഇട്ടു (iṭṭu).
• If the citation form ends in -യ്യുക (-yyuka), then replace that ending with -യ്തു (-ytu). For example, the past form of ചെയ്യുക (ceyyuka, 'to do') is ചെയ്തു (ceytu).
• If the citation form ends in -അക്കുക (-akkuka), then replace that ending with -അന്നു (-annu). For example, the past form of നടക്കുക (naṭakkuka, 'to walk') is നടന്നു (naṭannu). An exception to this rule is നക്കുക (nakkuka, to lick), whose past tense is നക്കി (nakki).
• The past tense of ഇരിക്കുക (irikkuka, 'to sit, reside') is ഇരുന്നു (irunnu). But apart from this exception if the citation form ends in -ഇക്കുക (-ikkuka), then replace that ending with -ഇച്ചു (-iccu). For example, the past form of അടിക്കുക (aṭikkuka, 'to beat') is അടിച്ചു (aṭiccu).
• If the citation form ends in -ഉക്കുക (-ukkuka) or -ര്‍ക്കുക (-ṟkkuka), then replace that ending with -ഉത്തു (-uttu) or -ര്‍ത്തു (-ṟttu) respectively. For example, the past form of തണുക്കുക (taṇukkuka, 'to get cold') is തണുത്തു (taṇuttu), and the past form of ഓര്‍ക്കുക (ōṟkkuka, 'to remember') is ഓര്‍ത്തു (ōṟttu). The past tense form of ഒക്കുക (okkuka, 'to manage/be able to') is ഒത്തു (ottu).
• The past tense of നില്‍ക്കുക (nilkkuka, 'to stand/wait') is നിന്നു (ninnu). But apart from this exception if the citation form ends in -ല്‍ക്കുക (-lkkuka), then replace that ending with -റ്റു (-ṯṯu). For example, the past form of തോല്‍ക്കുക (tōlkkuka, 'to lose') is തോറ്റു (tōṯṯu).
• If the citation form ends in -ള്‍ക്കുക (-ḷkkuka), then replace that ending with -ട്ടു (-ṭṭu). For example, the past form of കേള്‍ക്കുക (kēḷkkuka, 'to hear') is കേട്ടു (kēṭṭu).
• If the citation form ends in -യുക (-yuka), then replace that ending with -ഞ്ഞു (-ññu). For example, the past form of പറയുക (paṟayuka, 'to say') is പറഞ്ഞു (paṟaññu).
• If the citation form ends in -രുക (-ruka), then replace that ending with -ര്‍ന്നു (-ṟnnu). For example, the past form of തീരുക (tīruka, 'to end') is തീര്‍ന്നു (tīṟnnu).
• If the citation form ends in -ലുക (-luka) or -ല്ലുക (-lluka), then replace that ending (whichever of the two it is) with -ന്നു (-nnu). For example, the past form of അകലുക (akaluka, 'to move away') is അകന്നു (akannu). However, the past tense of ചൊല്ലുക (cholluka, 'to narrate') may be either ചൊന്നു (chonnu) or ചൊല്ലി (cholli).
• If the citation form ends in -രിക (-rika), then replace that ending with -ന്നു (-nnu). For example, the past form of വരിക (varika, 'to come') is വന്നു (vannu).
• The past form of കാണുക (kāṇuka, 'to see') is കണ്ടു (kaṇṭu).
• The past form of തിന്നുക (tiṉṉuka, 'to eat') is തിന്നു (tinnu).

Verb conjugations for the verb "പോകുക" (pōkuka, to go) based on the commonly recognized aspects in Malayalam are given below.^[4] The past tense marker in this case is -ഇ (-i).

Tenses

	Past	Present	Future
Simple	പോയി pōyi പോയി pōyi	പോകുന്നു pōkunnu പോകുന്നു pōkunnu	പോകും pōkum പോകും pōkum
Continuous	പോവുകയായിരുന്നു pōvukayāyirunnu പോവുകയായിരുന്നു pōvukayāyirunnu	പോവുകയാണ് pōvukayāṇŭ പോവുകയാണ് pōvukayāṇŭ	പോയിക്കൊണ്ടിരിക്കും pōyikkoṇṭirikkum പോയിക്കൊണ്ടിരിക്കും pōyikkoṇṭirikkum
Perfect	പോയിട്ടുണ്ടായിരുന്നു pōyiṭṭuṇṭāyirunnu പോയിട്ടുണ്ടായിരുന്നു pōyiṭṭuṇṭāyirunnu	പോയിട്ടുണ്ട് pōyiṭṭuṇṭŭ പോയിട്ടുണ്ട് pōyiṭṭuṇṭŭ	പോയിട്ടുണ്ടാകും pōyiṭṭuṇṭākum പോയിട്ടുണ്ടാകും pōyiṭṭuṇṭākum
Perfect continuous	പോയിക്കൊണ്ടിരിക്കുന്നുണ്ടായിരുന്നു pōyikkoṇṭirikkunnuṇṭāyirunnu പോയിക്കൊണ്ടിരിക്കുന്നുണ്ടായിരുന്നു pōyikkoṇṭirikkunnuṇṭāyirunnu	പോയിക്കൊണ്ടിരിക്കുന്നുണ്ട് pōyikkoṇṭirikkunnuṇṭŭ പോയിക്കൊണ്ടിരിക്കുന്നുണ്ട് pōyikkoṇṭirikkunnuṇṭŭ	പോയിക്കൊണ്ടിരിക്കുന്നുണ്ടാകും pōyikkoṇṭirikkunnuṇṭākum പോയിക്കൊണ്ടിരിക്കുന്നുണ്ടാകും pōyikkoṇṭirikkunnuṇṭākum
Habitual	പോകാറുണ്ടായിരുന്നു pōkāṟuṇṭāyirunnu പോകാറുണ്ടായിരുന്നു pōkāṟuṇṭāyirunnu	പോകാറുണ്ട് pōkāṟuṇṭŭ പോകാറുണ്ട് pōkāṟuṇṭŭ	–

Copula

Malayalam employs two defective verbs as its copulas. The first, -ആക് (ākŭ), is the plain equative copula. The second, -ഉണ്ട് (uṇṭŭ), is the locative copula and also used to indicate possession (with the subject/possessor in the dative case). These verbs change forms in different tenses and are usually suffixed to the noun phrases that are specified by the copula. The table below lists some examples.

Example	Notes
Equative
അവൻ avaṉ സന്തുഷ്ടനാണ് santuṣṭaṉāṇŭ അവൻ സന്തുഷ്ടനാണ് avaṉ santuṣṭaṉāṇŭ He is happy	Present tense form of ആക് is ആണ് (āṇŭ)
അവൻ avaṉ സന്തുഷ്ടനായിരുന്നു santuṣṭaṉāyirunnu അവൻ സന്തുഷ്ടനായിരുന്നു avaṉ santuṣṭaṉāyirunnu He was happy	Past tense form of ആക് is ആയിരുന്നു (āyirunnu)
അവൻ avaṉ സന്തുഷ്ടനാകും santuṣṭaṉākuṁ അവൻ സന്തുഷ്ടനാകും avaṉ santuṣṭaṉākuṁ He will be happy	Future tense form of ആക് is അകും (ākuṁ)
Locative
അവൻ avaṉ വീട്ടിലുണ്ട് vīṭṭiluṇṭŭ അവൻ വീട്ടിലുണ്ട് avaṉ vīṭṭiluṇṭŭ He is in the house	ഉണ്ട് stays the same in the present tense
അവൻ avaṉ വീട്ടിൽ vīṭṭil ഉണ്ടായിരുന്നു uṇṭāyirunnu അവൻ വീട്ടിൽ ഉണ്ടായിരുന്നു avaṉ vīṭṭil uṇṭāyirunnu He was in the house	Past tense form of ഉണ്ട് is ഉണ്ടായിരുന്നു (uṇṭāyirunnu)
അവൻ avaṉ വീട്ടിൽ vīṭṭil ഉണ്ടാകും uṇṭākuṁ അവൻ വീട്ടിൽ ഉണ്ടാകും avaṉ vīṭṭil uṇṭākuṁ He will be in the house	Future tense form of ഉണ്ട് is ഉണ്ടാകും (uṇṭākuṁ)
Possessive
അവൾക്ക് avaḷkkŭ ഒരു oru പുസ്തകമുണ്ട് pustakamuṇṭŭ അവൾക്ക് ഒരു പുസ്തകമുണ്ട് avaḷkkŭ oru pustakamuṇṭŭ She has a book
അവൾക്ക് avaḷkkŭ ഒരു oru പുസ്തകം pustakaṁ ഉണ്ടായിരുന്നു uṇṭāyirunnu അവൾക്ക് ഒരു പുസ്തകം ഉണ്ടായിരുന്നു avaḷkkŭ oru pustakaṁ uṇṭāyirunnu She had a book
അവൾക്ക് avaḷkkŭ ഒരു oru പുസ്തകം pustakaṁ ഉണ്ടാകും uṇṭākuṁ അവൾക്ക് ഒരു പുസ്തകം ഉണ്ടാകും avaḷkkŭ oru pustakaṁ uṇṭākuṁ She will have a book

Negation

Standard negation is expressed through the use of the negative particle/suffix -ഇല്ല (-illa, literally "no"), regardless of tense.^[5] The equative copula -ആക്, however, is negated by the negative suffix -അല്ല (-alla) in the present tense; in all other tenses -ഇല്ല is used. When these particles are suffixed to their corresponding noun phrases, sandhi (സന്ധി) rules must be obeyed.

Example	Notes
അവൻ avaṉ സന്തുഷ്ടനല്ല santuṣṭaṉalla അവൻ സന്തുഷ്ടനല്ല avaṉ santuṣṭaṉalla He is not happy	Equative copula negated by -അല്ല (-alla) in the present tense
അവൻ avaṉ സന്തുഷ്ടനായിരുന്നില്ല santuṣṭaṉāyirunnilla അവൻ സന്തുഷ്ടനായിരുന്നില്ല avaṉ santuṣṭaṉāyirunnilla He was not happy	Equative copula negated by -ഇല്ല (-illa) in any tense other than the present tense
അവൾക്ക് avaḷkkŭ ഒരു oru പുസ്തകമില്ല pustakamilla അവൾക്ക് ഒരു പുസ്തകമില്ല avaḷkkŭ oru pustakamilla She does not have a book	All other negations use -ഇല്ല (-illa)
അവൾ avaḷ പോകുന്നില്ല pōkunnilla അവൾ പോകുന്നില്ല avaḷ pōkunnilla She is not going
അവർ avaṟ ഇവിടെയില്ല iviṭeyilla അവർ ഇവിടെയില്ല avaṟ iviṭeyilla They are not here

Sandhi (സന്ധി)

Malayalam is an agglutinative language, and words can be joined in many ways. These ways are called sandhi (literally 'junction'). There are basically two genres of Sandhi used in Malayalam – one group unique to Malayalam (based originally on Old Tamil phonological rules, and in essence common with Tamil), and the other one common with Sanskrit. Thus, we have the "Malayāḷa Sandhi" and "Saṁskr̥ta Sandhi".

Sandhi unique to Malayalam

There are basically four Sandhi types unique to Malayalam – the "lōpa sandhi", "dvitva sandhi", "āgama sandhi" and "ādēśa sandhi".

Lōpa sandhi or "Elision"(ലോപ സന്ധി)

The Lopa sandhi occurs when the varna (vowel) at the end of a word is lost when it merges with another word. In most cases, the varna is the "samvr̥tōkāram". (the "closed u sound").

Dvitva Sandhi or "Rule of doubling"

In Malayalam, gemination is more in tense consonants and less in lax consonants. When two words combine in which the first is the qualifier and the qualified, the tense consonant initial to the second word geminates.

Āgama sandhi or "Rule of arrival" (ആഗമ സന്ധി)

When two vowels undergo Sandhi, a consonant ("y" or "v") is added to avoid the pronunciation difficulty.

Ādēśa Sandhi or "Rule of substitution"

In this Sandhi, one letter is substituted by another during concatenation.

This sandhi also includes Sanskrit Sandhi forms like vi + samam = viṣamam.

Sandhi common with Sanskrit

These Sandhi rules are basically inherited from Sanskrit, and are used in conjunction with Sanskrit vocabulary which forms approximately 60% of Modern Standard Malayalam (the entire Sanskrit vocabulary is also usable with appropriate changes).^[6][7] The rules like savarṇadīrgha sandhi, yaṇ sandhi, guṇa sandhi, vr̥ddhi sandhi and visarga sandhis are used without changes.

Samāsam (സമാസം)

All the Sanskrit samāsa rules are adapted to Malayalam compounds. In Malayalam, the tatpuruṣa compounds are classified according to the vibhakti they are based on, during compounding. The "alaṅkāraṁ" is also used to classify tatpuruṣa compounds. There are 4 types of samasam: 1) āvyayi bhavaṉ, 2) tatpuruṣa, 3) dvandaṉ, and 4) bahuvr̥hi.

Vr̥ttaṁ (വൃത്തം)

The vr̥ttaṁ consists of metres of Malayalam prosody. Like Sandhi, there are specific vr̥ttaṁs unique to Malayalam apart from the metres common with Sanskrit. As in case of Sandhi, the Malayalam vrittams are also named in Sanskrit.

Alaṅkāram (അലങ്കാരം)

Alaṅkāraṁ or "ornamentation" is also based on Sanskritic grammarian classification. It consists of the different figures of speech used in Malayalam poetry. Being successor to Sanskrit and Maṇipravāḷam, most of Sanskrit alankaras are used in Malayalam. Thus, the common figures of speech in poems are rūpakaṁ, utprēkṣā, upamā etc.

Words adopted from Sanskrit

When words are adopted from Sanskrit, their endings are usually changed to conform to Malayalam norms:

Nouns

1. Masculine Sanskrit nouns with a word stem ending in a short "a" take the ending "an" in the nominative singular. For example, Kr̥ṣṇa -> Kr̥ṣṇaṉ. The final "n" is dropped before masculine surnames, honorifics, or titles ending in "an" and beginning with a consonant other than "n" – e.g. Krishna Menon, Kr̥ṣṇa Kaṇiyāṉ etc., but Kr̥ṣṇan Eḻuttaccaṉ. Surnames ending with "aṟ" or "aḷ" (where these are plural forms of "aṉ" denoting respect) are treated similarly – Kr̥ṣṇa Potuval, Kr̥ṣṇa Cakyaṟ, but Kr̥ṣṇaṉ Nāyaṟ, Kr̥ṣṇaṉ Nambyāṟ, as are Sanskrit surnames such "Vaṟma(ṉ)", "Śaṟma(ṉ)", or "Gupta(ṉ)" (rare) – e.g. Kr̥ṣṇa Vaṟma, Kr̥ṣṇa Śaṟmaṉ.^{[citation needed]} If a name is a compound, only the last element undergoes this transformation – e.g. Kr̥ṣṇa + dēva = Kr̥ṣṇadēvaṉ, not Kr̥ṣṇandēvaṉ.
2. Feminine words ending in a long "ā" or "ī" are changed so that they now end in a short "a" or "i", for example Sītā -> Sīta and Lakṣmī -> Lakṣmi. However, the long vowel still appears in compound words, such as Sītādēvi orLakṣmīdēvi. The long ī is generally reserved for the vocative forms of these names, although in Sanskrit the vocative actually takes a short "i". There are also a small number of nominative "ī" endings that have not been shortened – a prominent example being the word "strī" "woman".
3. Nouns that have a stem in -an and which end with a long "ā" in the masculine nominative singular have a "vŭ" added to them, for example
   Brahmā (stem Brahman) -> Brahmāvŭ. When the same nouns are declined in the neuter and take a short "a" ending in Sanskrit, Malayalam adds an additional "m", e.g. Brahma (neuter nominative singular of Brahman) becomes Brahmam. This is again omitted when forming compounds.^{[citation needed}
   ]
4. Words whose roots end in -an but whose nominative singular ending is -a – for example, the Sanskrit root of "Karma" is actually "Karman" –are also changed. The original root is ignored and "Karma" (the form in Malayalam being "Karmam" because it ends in a short "a") is taken as the basic form of the noun when declining.^[8] However, this does not apply to all consonant stems, as "unchangeable" stems such as "manasa" ("mind") and "suhr̥ta (friend)" are identical to the Malayalam nominative singular forms (although the regularly derived "manam" sometimes occurs as an alternative to "manasa").
5. Sanskrit words describing things or animals rather than people with a stem in short "a" end with an "m" Malayalam. For example,
   Ananta
   becomes Anantan even though both are sentient.
6. Nouns with short vowel stems other than "a", such as "Viṣṇu", "Prajāpati" etc. are declined with the Sanskrit stem acting as the Malayalam nominative singular (the Sanskrit nominative singular is formed by adding a visarga, e.g. Viṣṇuḥ) ^{[citation needed]}
7. The original Sanskrit vocative is often used in formal or poetic Malayalam, e.g. "Harē" (for Hari) or "Prabhō" (for "Prabhu" – "lord"). This is restricted to certain contexts – mainly when addressing deities or other exalted individuals, so a normal man named Hari would usually be addressed using a Malayalam vocative such as "Harī". The Sanskrit genitive is also occasionally found in Malayalam poetry, especially the personal pronouns "mama" (my/ mine) and "tava" (thy/ thine). Other cases are less common and generally restricted to the realm of Maṇipravāḷam.
8. Along with these tatsama borrowings, there are also many tadbhava words in common use. These were borrowed into Malayalam before it became distinct from Tamil. As the language did not then accommodate Sanskrit phonology as it now does, words were changed to conform to the Old Tamil phonological system. For example: Kr̥ṣṇa -> Kaṇṇan.^[9]

References

• Ravi Sankar S Nair 2012 A Grammar of Malayalam http://www.languageinindia.com/nov2012/ravisankarmalayalamgrammar.pdf

External links

Media related to Malayalam grammar at Wikimedia Commons