Brahman
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In Hinduism, Brahman (
Brahman is a
Brahman is discussed in Hindu texts with the concept of
In Vedic Sanskrit:
- Brahma (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), brahman (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (neuter[26] gender) from root bṛh-, means "to be or make firm, strong, solid, expand, promote".[27]
- Brahmana (ब्रह्मन) (nominative singular, never plural), from stems brha (to make firm, strong, expand) + Sanskrit -man- which denotes some manifest form of "definite power, inherent firmness, supporting or fundamental principle".[27]
In later Sanskrit usage:
- Brahma (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), brahman (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (neuter[26] gender) means the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, Supreme Cosmic Spirit in Hinduism. The concept is central to Hindu philosophy, especially Vedanta; this is discussed below.
- Brahmā (ब्रह्मा) (nominative singular), Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (kalpa.
These are distinct from:
- A brāhmaṇa (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, pronounced Vedic mantras—an integral part of the Vedic literature.
- A brāhmaṇa (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, same pronunciation as above), means priest; in this usage the word is usually rendered in English as "Vedic priest.
- Dvaita, however, Ishvara (the Supreme Controller) has infinite attributes and the source of the impersonal Brahman.
- Devas, the expansions of Brahman/God into various forms, each with a certain quality. In the Vedic religion, there were 33 devas, which later became exaggerated to 330 million devas. In fact, devas are themselves regarded as more mundane manifestations of the One and the Supreme Brahman (See Para Brahman). The Sanskrit word for "ten million" also means group, and 330 million devas originally meant 33 types of divine manifestations.
History and literature
Vedic
Brahman is a concept present in Vedic Samhitas, the oldest layer of the Vedas dated to the late 2nd millennium BCE. For example,[28]
The Ṛcs are limited (parimita),
The Samans are limited,
And the Yajuses are limited,
But of the Word Brahman, there is no end.— Taittiriya Samhita VII.3.1.4, Translated by Barbara Holdrege[28]
The concept Brahman is referred to in hundreds of hymns in the Vedic literature.
Jan Gonda states that the diverse reference of Brahman in the Vedic literature, starting with Rigveda Samhitas, convey "different senses or different shades of meaning".[33] There is no one single word in modern Western languages that can render the various shades of meaning of the word Brahman in the Vedic literature, according to Jan Gonda.[33] In verses considered as the most ancient, the Vedic idea of Brahman is the "power immanent in the sound, words, verses and formulas of Vedas". However, states Gonda, the verses suggest that this ancient meaning was never the only meaning, and the concept evolved and expanded in ancient India.[34]
Barbara Holdrege states that the concept Brahman is discussed in the Vedas along four major themes: as the Word or verses (Sabdabrahman),[35] as Knowledge embodied in Creator Principle, as Creation itself, and a Corpus of traditions.[36] Hananya Goodman states that the Vedas conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principles underlying all that exists.[11] Gavin Flood states that the Vedic era witnessed a process of abstraction, where the concept of Brahman evolved and expanded from the power of sound, words and rituals to the "essence of the universe", the "deeper foundation of all phenomena", the "essence of the self (Atman, Self)", and the deeper "truth of a person beyond apparent difference".[37]
Upanishads
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The central concern of all Upanishads is to discover the relations between ritual, cosmic realities (including gods), and the human body/person.[40] The texts do not present a single unified theory, rather they present a variety of themes with multiple possible interpretations, which flowered in post-Vedic era as premises for the diverse schools of Hinduism.[10]
Paul Deussen states that the concept of Brahman in the Upanishads expands to metaphysical, ontological and soteriological themes, such as it being the "primordial reality that creates, maintains and withdraws within it the universe",[41] the "principle of the world",[41] the "absolute",[42] the "general, universal",[43] the "cosmic principle",[44] the "ultimate that is the cause of everything including all gods",[45] the "divine being, Lord, distinct God, or God within oneself",[46] the "knowledge",[47] the "Self, sense of self of each human being that is fearless, luminuous, exalted and blissful",[48] the "essence of liberation, of spiritual freedom",[49] the "universe within each living being and the universe outside",[48] the "essence and everything innate in all that exists inside, outside and everywhere".[50]
Gavin Flood summarizes the concept of Brahman in the Upanishads to be the "essence, the smallest particle of the cosmos and the infinite universe", the "essence of all things which cannot be seen, though it can be experienced", the "Self within each person, each being", the "truth", the "reality", the "absolute", the "bliss" (ananda).[37]
According to
The Upanishads contain several mahā-vākyas or "Great Sayings" on the concept of Brahman:[52]
| Text | Upanishad | Translation | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| अहं ब्रह्म अस्मि aham brahmāsmi |
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10 | "I am Brahman" | [53] |
| अयम् आत्मा ब्रह्म ayam ātmā brahma |
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5 | "The Self is Brahman" | [54] |
| सर्वं खल्विदं ब्रह्म sarvam khalvidam brahma |
Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1 | "All this is Brahman" | [55] |
| एकमेवाद्वितीयम् ekam evadvitiyam |
Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1 | "That [Brahman] is one, without a second" | [56] |
| तत्त्वमसि tat tvam asi |
Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 et seq. | "Thou art that" ("You are Brahman") | [57][58] |
| प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म prajnānam brahma |
Aitareya Upanishad 3.3.7 | "Wisdom is Brahman" | [59] |
The Upanishad discuss the metaphysical concept of Brahman in many ways, such as the Śāṇḍilya doctrine in Chapter 3 of the Chandogya Upanishad, among of the oldest Upanishadic texts.[60] The Śāṇḍilya doctrine on Brahman is not unique to Chandogya Upanishad, but found in other ancient texts such as the Satapatha Brahmana in section 10.6.3. It asserts that Atman (the inner essence, Self inside man) exists, the Brahman is identical with Atman, that the Brahman is inside man—thematic quotations that are frequently cited by later schools of Hinduism and modern studies on Indian philosophies.[60][61][62]
This whole universe is Brahman. In tranquility, let one worship It, as Tajjalan (that from which he came forth, as that into which he will be dissolved, as that in which he breathes).
Man is a creature of his Kratumaya (क्रतुमयः, will, purpose). Let him therefore have for himself this will, this purpose: The intelligent, whose body is imbued with life-principle, whose form is light, whose thoughts are driven by truth, whose self is like space (invisible but ever present), from whom all works, all desires, all sensory feelings encompassing this whole world, the silent, the unconcerned, this is me, my Self, my Soul within my heart.
This is my Soul in the innermost heart, greater than the earth, greater than the aerial space, greater than these worlds. This Soul, this Self of mine is that Brahman.
Paul Deussen notes that teachings similar to above on Brahman, re-appeared centuries later in the words of the 3rd century CE Neoplatonic Roman philosopher Plotinus in Enneades 5.1.2.[63]
Discussion
The concept Brahman has a lot of undertones of meaning and is difficult to understand. It has relevance in metaphysics, ontology, axiology (ethics & aesthetics), teleology and soteriology.
Brahman as a metaphysical concept
Brahman is the key metaphysical concept in various schools of Hindu philosophy. It is the theme in its diverse discussions to the two central questions of
Atman: the ultimate reality
In addition to the concept of Brahman, Hindu metaphysics includes the concept of
Maya: the perceived reality
In the metaphysics of the major schools of Hinduism, Maya is perceived reality, one that does not reveal the hidden principles, the true reality—the Brahman. Maya is unconscious, Brahman-Atman is conscious. Maya is the literal and the effect, Brahman is the figurative Upādāna—the principle and the cause.[66] Maya is born, changes, evolves, dies with time, from circumstances, due to invisible principles of nature. Atman-Brahman is eternal, unchanging, invisible principle, unaffected absolute and resplendent consciousness. Maya concept, states Archibald Gough, is "the indifferent aggregate of all the possibilities of emanatory or derived existences, pre-existing with Brahman", just like the possibility of a future tree pre-exists in the seed of the tree.[66]
Nirguna and Saguna Brahman
Brahman, the ultimate reality, is both with and without attributes. In this context,
While Hinduism sub-schools such as Advaita Vedanta emphasize the complete equivalence of Brahman and Atman, they also expound on Brahman as
Brahman as an ontological concept
Brahman, along with Self (Atman) are part of the ontological
Brahman as well the Atman in every human being (and living being) is considered equivalent and the sole reality, the eternal, self-born, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute in schools of Hinduism such as the Advaita Vedanta and Yoga.[82][83][84] Knowing one's own self is knowing the God inside oneself, and this is held as the path to knowing the ontological nature of Brahman (universal Self) as it is identical to the Atman (individual Self). The nature of Atman-Brahman is held in these schools, states Barbara Holdrege, to be as a pure being (sat), consciousness (cit) and full of bliss (ananda), and it is formless, distinctionless, nonchanging and unbounded.[82]
In theistic schools, in contrast, such as Dvaita Vedanta, the nature of Brahman is held as eternal, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute, while each individual's Self is held as distinct and limited which can at best come close in eternal blissful love of the Brahman (therein viewed as the Godhead).[85]
Other schools of Hinduism have their own ontological premises relating to Brahman, reality and nature of existence.
Brahman as an axiological concept
Brahman and Atman are key concepts to Hindu theories of axiology: ethics and aesthetics.[88][89] Ananda (bliss), state Michael Myers and other scholars, has axiological importance to the concept of Brahman, as the universal inner harmony.[90][91] Some scholars equate Brahman with the highest value, in an axiological sense.[92]
The axiological concepts of Brahman and Atman is central to Hindu theory of values.[93] A statement such as 'I am Brahman', states Shaw, means 'I am related to everything', and this is the underlying premise for compassion for others in Hinduism, for each individual's welfare, peace, or happiness depends on others, including other beings and nature at large, and vice versa.[94] Tietge states that even in non-dual schools of Hinduism where Brahman and Atman are treated ontologically equivalent, the theory of values emphasizes individual agent and ethics. In these schools of Hinduism, states Tietge, the theory of action are derived from and centered in compassion for the other, and not egotistical concern for the self.[95]
The axiological theory of values emerges implicitly from the concepts of Brahman and 'Atman, states Bauer.[96] The aesthetics of human experience and ethics are one consequence of self-knowledge in Hinduism, one resulting from the perfect, timeless unification of one's Self with the Brahman, the Self of everyone, everything and all eternity, wherein the pinnacle of human experience is not dependent on an afterlife, but pure consciousness in the present life itself.[96] It does not assume that an individual is weak nor does it presume that he is inherently evil, but the opposite: human Self and its nature is held as fundamentally unqualified, faultless, beautiful, blissful, ethical, compassionate and good.[96][97] Ignorance is to assume it evil, liberation is to know its eternal, expansive, pristine, happy and good nature.[96] The axiological premises in the Hindu thought and Indian philosophies in general, states Nikam, is to elevate the individual, exalting the innate potential of man, where the reality of his being is the objective reality of the universe.[98] The Upanishads of Hinduism, summarizes Nikam, hold that the individual has the same essence and reality as the objective universe, and this essence is the finest essence; the individual Self is the universal Self, and Atman is the same reality and the same aesthetics as the Brahman.[98]
Brahman as a teleological concept
Brahman and Atman are very important teleological concepts. Teleology deals with the apparent purpose, principle, or goal of something. In the first chapter of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, these questions are addressed. It says:
"People who make inquiries about brahman say:
What is the cause of Brahman? Why were we born? By what do we live? On what are we established? Governed by whom, O you who know Brahman, do we live in pleasure and in pain, each in our respective situation?— Shvetashvatara Upanishad, Hymns 1.1[99]
According to the Upanishads, the main purpose/meaning of anything or everything can be explained or achieved/understood only through the realization of the Brahman. The apparent purpose of everything can be grasped by obtaining the Brahman, as the Brahman is referred to that when known, all things become known.
"What is that my lord, by which being known, all of this becomes known?"
Angiras told him, "Two types of knowledge a man should learn, those who know Brahman tell us — the higher and the lower. The lower of the two consists of the Rgveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda (...), whereas, the higher is that by which one grasps the imperishable (Brahman)."— Mundaka Upanishad, Hymns 1.1[99]
Elsewhere in the Upanishads, the relationship between Brahman & all knowledge is established, such that any questions of apparent purpose/teleology are resolved when the Brahman is ultimately known. This is found in the Aitareya Upanishad 3.3 and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.17.
Knowledge is the eye of all that, and on knowledge it is founded. Knowledge is the eye of the world, and knowledge, the foundation. Brahman is knowing.
One of the main reasons why Brahman should be realized is because it removes suffering from a person's life. Following on
In
Brahman as a soteriological concept: Moksha
The orthodox schools of Hinduism, particularly Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools, focus on the concept of Brahman and Atman in their discussion of moksha. The Advaita Vedanta holds there is no being/non-being distinction between Atman and Brahman. The knowledge of Atman (Self-knowledge) is synonymous to the knowledge of Brahman inside the person and outside the person. Furthermore, the knowledge of Brahman leads to a sense of oneness with all existence, self-realization, indescribable joy, and moksha (freedom, bliss),[102] because Brahman-Atman is the origin and end of all things, the universal principle behind and at source of everything that exists, consciousness that pervades everything and everyone.[103]
The theistic sub-school such as Dvaita Vedanta of Hinduism, starts with the same premises, but adds the premise that individual Self and Brahman are distinct, and thereby reaches entirely different conclusions where Brahman is conceptualized in a manner similar to God in other major world religions.[20] The theistic schools assert that moksha is the loving, eternal union or nearness of one's Self with the distinct and separate Brahman (Vishnu, Shiva or equivalent henotheism). Brahman, in these sub-schools of Hinduism is considered the highest perfection of existence, which every Self journeys towards in its own way for moksha.[104]
Hindu schools of thought
Vedanta
The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the Vedanta school of Hinduism.
Advaita Vedanta
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The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it is Brahman. According to
In Advaita Vedanta, nirguna Brahman is held to be the ultimate and sole reality.[72][76] Consciousness is not a property of Brahman but rather its very nature. In this respect, Advaita Vedanta differs from other Vedanta schools.[107]
Example verses from
The offering is Brahman; the oblation is Brahman;
offered by Brahman into the fire of Brahman.
Brahman will be attained by him,
who always sees Brahman in action. – Hymn 4.24[108][109]
He who finds his happiness within,
His delight within,
And his light within,
This yogin attains the bliss of Brahman, becoming Brahman. – Hymn 5.24[110]— Bhagavad Gita
Dvaita Vedanta
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Brahman of
Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between Tattvas (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:[citation needed]
- Jîva-Îshvara-bheda — difference between the Self and the Supreme God
- Jada-Îshvara-bheda — difference between the insentient and the Supreme God
- Mitha-jîva-bheda — difference between any two Selves
- Jada-jîva-bheda — difference between insentient and the Self
- Mitha-jada-bheda — difference between any two insentients
Vishishtadvaita
In Vishishtadvaita, Ramanuja asserts that Brahman is God, and that this God is Narayana. In his commentary on the Brahma Sutras 1.1.1, Ramanuja defines Brahman as the "'highest person,' one who by his own nature is free from all imperfections and in possession of host of innumerable auspicious qualities of unsurpassable excellence." Using this definition, Ramanuja argues that Brahman must be God because Brahman's qualities are unsurpassably superior to all, and thus "only the Lord of all can thus be denoted, and 'Brahman' primarily denotes him alone". Ramanuja asserts that the relationship between God and the individual selves must be one of devotion, and moksha or liberation is said by him to be caused by the selves' worship of Brahman: "The cessation of bondage...is to be obtained only through the grace of the highest Person who is pleased by worshipper's meditation, which is devotion".[112]
Achintya Bheda Abheda
The
Bhakti movement
The Bhakti movement of Hinduism built its theosophy around two concepts of Brahman—Nirguna and Saguna.[114] Nirguna Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality.[115] Saguna Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality.[115] The two had parallels in the ancient pantheistic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the Bhagavad Gita.[114][116] It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives, one from Nirguni knowledge-focus and other from Saguni love-focus, united as Krishna (an 8th incarnation of Lord Vishnu) in the Gita.[116] Nirguna bhakta's poetry were Jnana-shrayi, or had roots in knowledge.[114] Saguna bhakta's poetry were Prema-shrayi, or with roots in love.[114] In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.[116]
Jeaneane Fowler states that the concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, at the root of Bhakti movement
Nirguna and Saguna Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the Nirguni tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality".[118] Yet given the "mountains of Nirguni bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for Nirguna Brahman has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for Saguna Brahman.[118] These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.[114]
Buddhist understanding of Brahman
Buddhism rejects the Upanishadic doctrine of Brahman and Atman (permanent Self, essence). but their belief of Trikaya is very similar to the sat-cit-ananda characteristics of Brahman.
According to Merv Fowler, some forms of Buddhism have incorporated concepts that resemble that of Brahman.
Brahma as a surrogate for Brahman in Buddhist texts
The spiritual concept of Brahman is far older in the Vedic literature[citation needed], and some scholars suggest deity Brahma may have emerged as a personal conception and icon with form and attributes (saguna version) of the impersonal, nirguna (without attributes), formless universal principle called Brahman.[126] In the Hindu texts, one of the earliest mentions of deity Brahma along with Vishnu and Shiva is in the fifth Prapathaka (lesson) of the Maitrayaniya Upanishad, probably composed in late 1st millennium BCE, after the rise of Buddhism.[127][128][129]
The early Buddhists attacked the concept of Brahma, states Gananath Obeyesekere, and thereby
Brahman in Chinese thought
L. S. Vasil’ev, writing for the University of Pennsylvania, argued that syncretic Taoists used Brahman in their worship as a substitute for Tao.[133]
Victor H. Mair thought that Taoists in the early history of the faith had positive "cultural relations" with Hindu groups and that the Tao Te Ching was written in reaction to Indian philosophy and that the author(s) viewed Brahman as being the same as Tao.[134]
Brahman in Sikhism
The metaphysical concept of Brahman, particularly as nirguni Brahman—attributeless, formless, eternal Highest Reality—is at the foundation of Sikhism.[140] This belief is observed through nirguni Bhakti by the Sikhs.[141][142]
In Gauri, which is part of the Guru Granth Sahib, Brahman is declared as "One without a second", in Sri Rag "everything is born of Him, and is finally absorbed in Him", in Var Asa "whatever we see or hear is the manifestation of Brahman".[143] Nesbitt states that the first two words, Ik Onkar, in the twelve-word Mul Mantar at the opening of the Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib, has been translated in three different ways by scholars: "There is one god", "This being is one", and as "One reality is".[135]
Similar emphasis on "One without a second" for metaphysical concept of Brahman, is found in ancient texts of Hinduism, such as the Chandogya Upanishad's chapter 6.2.[144][145] The ideas about God and Highest Reality in Sikhism share themes found in the Saguna and Nirguna concepts of Brahman in Hinduism.[140][146]
The concept of Ultimate Reality (Brahman) is also referred in Sikhism as Nam, Sat-naam or Naam, and Ik Oankar like Hindu Om symbolizes this Reality.[147][148]
Brahman in Jainism
Scholars contest whether the concept of Brahman is rejected or accepted in Jainism. The concept of a theistic God is rejected by Jainism, but Jiva or "Atman (Self) exists" is held to be a metaphysical truth and central to its theory of rebirths and
Bissett states that Jainism accepts the "material world" and "Atman", but rejects Brahman—the metaphysical concept of Ultimate Reality and Cosmic Principles found in the ancient texts of Hinduism.
Comparison of Brahma, Brahman, Brahmin and Brahmanas
Brahma is distinct from Brahman.[154] Brahma is a male deity, in the post-Vedic Puranic literature,[155] who creates but neither preserves nor destroys anything. He is envisioned in some Hindu texts to have emerged from the metaphysical Brahman along with Vishnu (preserver), Shiva (destroyer), all other gods, goddesses, matter and other beings.[156][155][157]
Brahman is a metaphysical concept of Hinduism referring to the ultimate unchanging reality,[154][158][159] that is uncreated, eternal, infinite, transcendent, the cause, the foundation, the source and the goal of all existence.[156] It is envisioned as either the cause or that which transforms itself into everything that exists in the universe as well as all beings, that which existed before the present universe and time, which exists as current universe and time, and that which will absorb and exist after the present universe and time ends.[156] It is a gender neutral abstract concept.[156][160][161] The abstract Brahman concept is predominant in the Vedic texts, particularly the Upanishads;[162] while the deity Brahma finds minor mention in the Vedas and the Upanishads.[163] In the Puranic and the Epics literature, the deity Brahma appears more often, but inconsistently.
Some texts suggest that the god Vishnu created Brahma (Vaishnavism),[164] others suggest god Shiva created Brahma (Shaivism),[165] yet others suggest goddess Devi created Brahma (Shaktism),[166] and these texts then go on to state that Brahma is a secondary creator of the world working respectively on their behalf.[166][167] A similarity between Brahma and Brahman is that Brahman is said to be an anchor for the world and the relations between all things, including opposites, in it,[8] whereas Brahma is a creator god who aids the world in many Hindu and Buddhist traditions.
Further, the medieval era texts of these major theistic traditions of Hinduism assert that the saguna[note 9] Brahman is Vishnu,[169] is Shiva,[170] or is Devi[171] respectively, they are different names or aspects of the Brahman, and that the Atman (Self) within every living being is the same or part of this ultimate, eternal Brahman.[172]
Brahmin is a varna in Hinduism specialising in theory as priests, preservers and transmitters of sacred literature across generations.[173][174]
The Brahmanas are one of the four ancient layers of texts within the Vedas. They are primarily a digest incorporating myths, legends, the explanation of Vedic rituals and in some cases philosophy.[175][176] They are embedded within each of the four Vedas, and form a part of the Hindu śruti literature.[177]
See also
Notes
- ^ "not sublatable",[15] the final element in a dialectical process which cannot be eliminated or annihilated (German: "aufheben").
- ^ It is also defined as:
- The unchanging,
- The one supreme, all pervading Spirit that is the origin and support of the phenomenal universe.[17]
- Saguna Brahman, with qualities
- Nirguna Brahman, without qualities
- ^ Supreme
- ^ Merv Fowler, Zen Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 2005), p. 30: "Upanisadic thought is anything but consistent; nevertheless, there is a common focus on the acceptance of a totally transcendent Absolute, a trend which arose in the Vedic period. This indescribable Absolute is called Brahman [...] The true Self and Brahman are one and the same. Known as the Brahman-Atman synthesis, this theory, which is central to Upanisadic thought, is the cornerstone of Indian philosophy. The Brahman-Atman synthesis, which posits the theory of a permanent, unchanging self, was anathema to Buddhists, and it was as a reaction to the synthesis that Buddhism first drew breath. Merv Fowler p. 47: "For the Upanisadic sages, the real is the Self, is Atman, is Brahman. [...] To the Buddhist, however, any talk of an Atman or permanent, unchanging Self, the very kernel of Upanisadic thought, is anathema, a false notion of manifest proportion."
- ^ Merv Fowler, Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 34: "It was inevitable that the non-theistic philosophy of orthodox Buddhism should court the older Hindu practices and, in particular, infuse into its philosophy the belief in a totally transcendent Absolute of the nature of Brahman."
- ^ Merv Fowler, Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 82: "The original writers of these Mahayana texts were not at all pleased that their writings were seen to contain the Brahman of the Upanisads in a new form. The authors of the Lankavatara strenuously denied that the womb of Tathagatahood, [...] was in any way equatable with the 'eternal self', the Brahmanical atman of Upanisadic thought. Similarly, the claim in the Nirvana Sutra that the Buddha regarded Buddhahood as a 'great atman' caused the Yogacarins considerable distress."
- ^ representation with face and attributes)[168]
References
- ^ ISBN 978-0823931798.
- ^ ISBN 978-1406732627, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII
- ^ a b Fowler 2002, pp. 49–55 (in Upanishads), 318–319 (in Vishistadvaita), 246–248 and 252–255 (in Advaita), 342–343 (in Dvaita), 175–176 (in Samkhya-Yoga).
- ISBN 978-9042015104, pages 43–44
- ^ ISBN 978-0199738724, pages 51–58, 111–115;
For monist school of Hinduism, see: B. Martinez-Bedard (2006), Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara, Thesis – Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pages 18–35 - ^ ISBN 978-0884899976.
- ^ "Brahman and Atman: That Art Thou". The Pluralism Project. Harvard University. 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2023.
- ^ ISBN 9780028638201.
- ISBN 978-8120814684, page 91
- ^ ISBN 978-0415187077, pages 1–4
- ^ ISBN 978-0791417164.
- ^ Raju 1992, p. 228.
- ISBN 978-0824802714, Chapter 1
- ^ Fowler 2002, pp. 53–55.
- ^ a b Potter 2008, pp. 6–7.
- ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5.
- ^ John Bowker (ed.)(2012), The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press.[1]
- ^ Fowler 2002, pp. 49–53.
- ISBN 978-0791470824, Chapter 12: Atman and Brahman – Self and All
- ^ ISBN 978-0700712571, pages 124–127
- ISBN 978-3110342550, pages 155–157
- ^ ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19–40, 53–58, 79–86
- ISBN 978-1577315889, pages 17–18
- ^ Puligandla 1997, p. 222.
- ^ Sinari 2000, p. 384.
- ^ a b Not Masculine or Feminine (see Grammatical gender).
- ^ a b Jan Gonda (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Indian Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 268–269
- ^ ISBN 978-0791416402, page 29
- ^ a b c d Maurice Bloomfield, A Vedic Concordance, Harvard University Press, pages 656-662
- ^ Original: वयमग्ने अर्वता वा सुवीर्यं ब्रह्मणा वा चितयेमा जनाँ अति । अस्माकं द्युम्नमधि पञ्च कृष्टिषूच्चा स्वर्ण शुशुचीत दुष्टरम् ॥१०॥
Source: ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं २.२ Wikisource - ^ Original: स तु श्रुधीन्द्र नूतनस्य ब्रह्मण्यतो वीर कारुधायः । त्वं ह्यापिः प्रदिवि पितॄणां शश्वद्बभूथ सुहव एष्टौ ॥८॥
ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं ६.२१ Wikisource - ^ Original: ब्रह्मणस्पतिरेता सं कर्मार इवाधमत् । देवानां पूर्व्ये युगेऽसतः सदजायत ॥२॥
ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.७२ Wikisource - ^ a b Jan Gonda (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Indian Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 269–271. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062054
- ^ Jan Gonda (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Indian Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 271–272. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062054
- ISBN 978-8120804265, pages 34–35
- ISBN 978-0791416402, page 24
- ^ ISBN 978-0521438780, pages 84–85
- ISBN 978-0028657332, page 8894, Quote: "In Hindu iconography the swan personifies Brahman-Atman, the transcendent yet immanent ground of being, the Self."
- ISBN 978-0415556231, page 697
- ^ Olivelle 1998, p. lii.
- ^ ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 243, 325–344, 363, 581
- ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 358, 371
- ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 305, 476
- ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 110, 315–316, 495, 838–851
- ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 211, 741–742
- ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 308–311, 497–499
- ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 181, 237, 444, 506–544, 570–571, 707, 847–850
- ^ ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 52, 110, 425, 454, 585–586, 838–851
- ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 173–174, 188–198, 308–317, 322–324, 367, 447, 496, 629–637, 658, 707–708
- ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 600, 619–620, 647, 777
- ^ Radhakrishnan, S., The Principal Upanisads, HarperCollins India, 1994, page 77
- ISBN 978-0816073368.
- ^ Sanskrit and English Translation: S. Madhavananda, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad – Shankara Bhashya, page 145
- ^ Sanskrit and English Translation: S. Madhavananda, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad – Shankara Bhashya, pages 711–712
- ^ Sanskrit: छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.१ ॥तृतीयॊऽध्यायः॥ Wikisource
English Translation:Max Muller, Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1 Oxford University Press, page 48;
Max Muller, The Upanisads at Google Books, Routledge, pages xviii–xix - ^ Sanskrit: छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.२ ॥षष्ठोऽध्यायः॥ Wikisource
English Translation:Max Muller, Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1 Oxford University Press, page 93;
Max Muller, The Upanisads at Google Books, Routledge, pages xviii–xix - ^ Sanskrit: छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.२ ॥षष्ठोऽध्यायः॥ Wikisource
English Translation:Robert Hume, Chandogya Upanishad 6.8, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 246–250 - ^ A. S. Gupta, The Meanings of "That Thou Art", Philosophy East and West, Vol. 12, No. 2, pages 125–134
- ^ Sanskrit: ऐतरेयोपनिषद् Wikisource
English Translation:Max Muller, Aitareya Upanishad 3.3.7, also known as Aitareya Aranyaka 2.6.1.7 Oxford University Press, page 246 - ^ a b c d Robert Hume, Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1 – 3.14.4, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 209–210
- ^ Chandogya Upanishad with Shankara Bhashya Ganganath Jha (Translator), pages 150–157
- ^ For modern era cites:
- Anthony Warder (2009), A Course in Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812444, pages 25–28;
- D. D. Meyer (2012), Consciousness, Theatre, Literature and the Arts, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, ISBN 978-1443834919, page 250;
- Joel Brereton (1995), Eastern Canons: Approaches to the Asian Classics (Editors: William Theodore De Bary, Irene Bloom), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231070058, page 130;
- S. Radhakrishnan (1914), "The Vedanta philosophy and the Doctrine of Maya", International Journal of Ethics, Vol. 24, No. 4, pages 431–451
- Anthony Warder (2009), A Course in Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass,
- ^ ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 110–111 with preface and footnotes
- ^ a b Max Muller, Chandogya Upanishad 3.13.7, The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, page 48 with footnotes
- ISBN 978-0415073103, Accessed (13 June 2015)
- ^ ISBN 978-0415245227, pages 47–48
- ISBN 978-0791441718pages 279–292
- ISBN 978-8120801585, pages 60-62
- ISBN 0415215277, pages 22–23
- ISBN 0415215277, pages 45–50
- ISBN 978-1898723608, pages 135–137
- ^ a b c d AC Das (1952), Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, pages 144–154
- ISBN 978-8120812512, page 5
- ^ Paul Hacker (1978), Eigentumlichkeiten dr Lehre und Terminologie Sankara: Avidya, Namarupa, Maya, Isvara, in Kleine Schriften (Editor: L. Schmithausen), Franz Steiner Verlag, Weisbaden, pages 101–109 (in German), also pages 69–99;
Advaita Vedanta - A Bird's Eye View, Topic III: Philosophy of Advaita Vedanta, D. Krishna Ayyar (2011) - ^ .
- ^ a b c William Wainwright (2012), Concepts of God, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Accessed on: 13 June 2015)
- ISBN 978-0415073103
- ISBN 978-0415073103, Accessed (13 June 2015)
- ^ Stephen H. Phillips (2001), Could There Be Mystical Evidence for a Nondual Brahman? A Causal Objection, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 51, No. 4, pages 492–506
- ISBN 978-8120801585, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".
- ^ M. Prabhakar (2012), Review: An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Philosophy in Review, 32(3), pages 158–160
- ^ ISBN 0415215277, pages 241–242
- ISBN 978-1438454559, pages 131–142
- ISBN 978-0415829809, pages 135–136, Quote: "As a dualistic philosophy largely congruent with Samkhya's metaphysics, Yoga seeks liberation through the realization that Atman equals Brahman; it involves a cosmogonic dualism: purusha an absolute consciousness, and prakriti original and primeval matter."
- ISBN 0415215277, pages 166–167
- ISBN 0415215277, page 554
- ISBN 978-0700712571, pages 30–31
- ISBN 978-8180695445, pages 56–59
- ISBN 978-8120807105, pages 49–50
- ^ Michael W. Myers (1998), Śaṅkarācārya and Ānanda, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 48, No. 4, pages 553–567
- ISBN 978-9042012202, page 225
- ^ T. M. P. Mahadevan (1954), The Metaphysics of Śaṁkara, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 3, No. 4, pages 359–363
- ^ Arvind Sharma (1999), The Puruṣārthas: An Axiological Exploration of Hinduism, The Journal of Religious Ethics, Vol. 27, No. 2, pages 223–256
- ^ J. L. Shaw (2011), Freedom: East and West, SOPHIA, Vol 50, Springer Science, pages 481–497
- ^ Katherine L Tietge (1997), Ontology and Genuine Moral Action: Jñaña (Intuitive Perception) Ethics and Karma-Yoga in Sankara's Advaita Vedanta and Schopenhauer's On the Basis of Morality, Ph.D. Thesis, Dept. of Philosophy, Southern Illinois University (US), Archive Link
- ^ a b c d Nancy Bauer (1987), Advaita Vedānta and Contemporary Western Ethics, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 37, No. 1, pages 36–50
- ISBN 978-0195644418, pages 57–61
- ^ a b N. A. Nikam (1952), A Note on the Individual and His Status in Indian Thought, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 3, pages 254–258
- ^ a b Patrick Olivelle. (1998).The Early Upaniṣads New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- ^ "English translation of Aitareya Upanishad" (PDF). Consciouslivingfoundation.org. Retrieved 26 January 2019.
- ^ T.N. Sethumadhavan. "Aitareya Upanishad : Transliterated Sanskrit Text Free Translation & Brief Explanation" (PDF). Esamskriti.com. Retrieved 26 January 2019.
- ^ Anantanand Rambachan (1994), The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas, University of Hawaii Press, pages 124–125
- ^ Karl Potter (2008), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils, Volume 3, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 210–215
- ^ Betty Stafford (2010) "Dvaita, Advaita, And Viśiṣṭadvaita: Contrasting Views Of Mokṣa", Asian Philosophy, pages 215–224
- ISBN 978-8184752779, see article on Brahman
- ^ Anantanand Rambachan (1994), The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas. University of Hawaii Press, pages 125, 124
- ^ [Sangeetha Menon (2007), Advaita Vedānta], Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- ISBN 978-1438428420, page 224
- ISBN 978-1845193461, page 83
- ISBN 978-1438428420, page 266
- ISBN 978-1-84706-449-3.
- ISBN 978-0-19-513854-2.
- ^ a b Prabhupada, His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami. "Bhagavad Gita Chapter 14 Verse 27". vedabase.io. Retrieved 25 July 2020.
- ^ ISBN 978-0195351903, page 21
- ^ ISBN 978-1845193461, pages xxvii–xxxiv
- ^ ISBN 978-1845193461, pages 207–211
- ISBN 978-0826499660, pages 113–115
- ^ ISBN 978-0791428054, page 2
- ^ Damien Keown, Buddhism (NY: Sterling, 2009), p. 70
- ISBN 978-0-203-01057-0.
- ISBN 978-81-208-3248-0.
- ISBN 978-1-4522-6656-5.
- ^ Merv Fowler, Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 34
- ^ William Theodore De Bary, cited in Merv Fowler, Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 98
- ^ Merv Fowler, Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 81
- ISBN 978-8120816763, pages 82–83
- ^ Hume, Robert Ernest (1921), The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pp. 422–424
- ISBN 978-81-208-0619-1., Quote: "We may conclude from the above that the rise of Buddhism is not far removed in time from, though it is prior to, the Maitri Upanishad".
- ^ Jan Gonda (1968), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Vol. 63, pages 215–219
- ^ ISBN 978-81-208-2609-0.
- ISBN 978-3-11-009896-9.
- ISBN 978-3-11-009896-9.
- ^ Vasil’ev, L. S. (December 2014). "Dao and Brahman: The Phenomenon of Primordial Supreme Unity" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. Translated by Rostislav Berezkin. University of Pennsylvania. p. 31.
- ISBN 9780965064750.
- ^ ISBN 978-0192806017, Chapter 4
- ^ Jean Holm and John Bowker, Worship, Bloomsbury, ISBN, page 67
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- ISBN 978-0415595971, pages 188–190
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- Max Muller, Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1Oxford University Press, pages 93–94
- ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 156–157, 162–163
- ISBN 978-9400791770, pages 145–146
- ISBN 978-1898723134, pages 70–71
- ISBN 978-8170102458, page 47
- ISBN 978-0415129657, page 46
- ISBN 81-70999553, page 81
- ISBN 978-8120832473, pages ix–x
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- ^ Brahmana Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)
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- ^ "Brahmana". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary
Sources
- Fowler, Jeaneane D. (2002). Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism. Sussex Academic Press. ]
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- Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism. Past and present. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
- Olivelle, Patrick (1998). The Early Upanisads. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195124354.
- Potter, Karl H. (2008), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
- Puligandla, Ramakrishna (1997), Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, New Delhi: D. K. Printworld (P) Ltd.
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External links
- The Concept of Brahman in Hindu Philosophy, Haridas Chaudhuri (1954), Philosophy East and West, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 47–66.
- The Idea of God in Hinduism, A. S. Woodburne (1925), The Journal of Religion, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 52–66.
- The Western View of Hinduism: An Age-old Mistake (Brahman), J. M. De Mora (1997), Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 78, No. 1/4, pp. 1–12.
- Concepts of God Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Compares Brahman with concepts of God found in other religions).
- Detailed essays on Brahman at Hinduwebsite.com