Nevado Tres Cruces
Nevado Tres Cruces | |
---|---|
Highest point | |
Elevation | 6,748 m (22,139 ft) |
Prominence | 1,422 m (4,665 ft) |
Coordinates | 27°05′S 68°48′W / 27.08°S 68.8°W[1] |
Geography | |
Geology | |
Age of rock | Pleistocene |
Nevado Tres Cruces is a massif of volcanic origin in the Andes Mountains on the border of Argentina and Chile. It has two main summits, Tres Cruces Sur at 6,748 metres (22,139 ft) and Tres Cruces Centro at 6,629 m (21,749 ft) and a third minor summit, Tres Cruces Norte 6,030 m (19,780 ft). Tres Cruces Sur is the sixth highest mountain in the Andes.
The volcano has an extended history of activity, going back at least 1.5 million years. A number of
Geography and geomorphology
Nevado Tres Cruces is located in the High Andes of
The volcano is massive, covering an area of about 1,000 square kilometres (390 sq mi),[1] and consists of a 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) long and 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) wide[2] north-south trending chain made up of at least three overlapping volcanoes.[7] These volcanoes have diameters of 4–5 kilometres (2.5–3.1 mi) and rise about 800–1,600 metres (2,600–5,200 ft) above the surrounding terrain.[8] The highest summit, and sixth-highest summit of South America,[9] of Nevado Tres Cruces is the 6,748 metres (22,139 ft) high[a] southern summit, which is also the least eroded of the three volcanoes that make up Nevado Tres Cruces. The southern summit consists of two overlapping cones, the western and older one of which has two explosion craters while the eastern one is capped by a summit lava dome. The central volcano reaches an elevation of 6,629 metres (21,749 ft), has the steepest slopes and is tilted to the west.[8] The northern volcano has a summit elevation of 6,206 metres (20,361 ft)[13] and is capped by a glacially eroded, 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) wide crater.[8] There are two even more minor summits at the north end of the massif, Punta Torre 6,320 m (20,730 ft) and Punta Atacama 6,206 m (20,361 ft).[13]
The volcanoes are formed by
Domo del Indio on the southeastern flank is 3.2 by 1.8 kilometres (2.0 mi × 1.1 mi) wide and 235 metres (771 ft) high. Between it and Nevado Tres Cruces lies a 2 by 1.5 kilometres (1.24 mi × 0.93 mi) wide and 150 metres (490 ft) deep explosion crater that contains the La Espinilla dome, which is 45 metres (148 ft) high and 200–250 metres (660–820 ft) wide.[17] Another lava dome is known as Domo las Vicuñas.[18] The Tres Cruces Ignimbrite was erupted by Nevado Tres Cruces[19] and lies between Nevado Tres Cruces and Ojos del Salado and reaches a thickness of 100 metres (330 ft).[20] It covers a surface area of 81.31 square kilometres (31.39 sq mi).[21] The ignimbrite consists of pumice and volcanic ash,[19] is poorly welded and has a low crystal content.[21]
These edifices rise over older volcanoes, which crop out north of Nevado Tres Cruces in the form of the volcanoes Cristi (5,900 metres (19,400 ft) high[18]), Lemp and Rodrigo.[2] The latter has a caldera at 5,950 metres (19,520 ft) elevation.[18] Lemp is located just south of Rodrigo.[22] Puntiagudo crops out south of Nevado Tres Cruces.[2] Two other centres lie on the southwestern foot: 5,194 metres (17,041 ft) high Paitur and 5,361 metres (17,589 ft) Trioblite.[23] The older structures are smoothened by erosion and lack primary features.[24] A thick and large lava flow crops out west of the volcano; it has a surface area of 3.5 by 5.5 square kilometres (1.4 sq mi × 2.1 sq mi) and a thickness of 150–200 metres (490–660 ft).[2] Three older lava domes, all heavily eroded, are found on the western flank.[25]
Glaciation
Small glaciers occur on Nevado Tres Cruces[26] on the eastern and southern sides[27] above 5,500 metres (18,000 ft) elevation. They are best developed above 5,750 metres (18,860 ft) elevation and consist of small ice bodies (none exceeding 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi)) in glacial cirques and at the edges of lava flows.[2] One of these is hosted in a cirque on the southeastern flank of the southern summit.[8] Ice area was constant between 1937 and 1956[28] but declined by almost half between 1985 and 2016.[29] Non-moving ice without crevasses has been found on the northern summit,[30] and there are debris-covered glaciers on the volcanoes. [31] Some sources however deny that any glacier occurs on Nevado Tres Cruces.[32]
Geology
Off the western coast of South America, the
Nevado Tres Cruces is part of the CVZ,
Nevado Tres Cruces together with neighbouring
Composition
Nevado Tres Cruces has erupted rocks ranging from
Climate and vegetation
Strong winds, intense
Human history
The volcano was climbed on February 24, 1937, by members of the Second Polish Andean Expedition, Stefan Osiecki and Witold Paryski .[47]
Eruption history
Nevado Tres Cruces was active during the
1.5 million years ago an
Most recent eruption and hazards
The last eruption 28,000±22,000 years ago[52] produced the summit dome of the southern summit.[8] There are no known historical eruptions and the volcano is not considered to be active.[7] In light of the long repose periods relative to the date of the last eruption, future eruptions are possible but are unlikely to have high impact, as there is virtually no infrastructure in the region[17] other than the International Route CH-31 .[53]
Based on geochemical data, Nevado Tres Cruces has been proposed as the source of a tephra layer in the
Notes
- ^ Other estimates are 6,330 metres (20,770 ft)[10] and 6,620 metres (21,720 ft),[1] and 6,030 metres (19,780 ft) for the northern summit.[11] Owing to the region being extremely remote, elevations are often uncertain.[12]
- ^ A normal fault is an usually steep fault where the hanging wall is moving downward with respect to the footwall.[15]
References
- ^ a b c d e "Tres Cruces". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Gardeweg et al. 2000, p. 291.
- ISSN 2250-4087.
- ^ Nüsser & Dame 2015, p. 68.
- ^ a b Loyola et al. 2023, p. 6.
- S2CID 258297521.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Moreno & Gibbons 2007, p. 154.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Gardeweg et al. 2000, p. 292.
- ^ Rundel, Philip W.; Kleier, Catherine C. (2014). "Parque Nacional Nevado de Tres Cruces, Chile: A Significant Coldspot of Biodiversity in a High Andean Ecosystem" (PDF). fs.fed.us. p. 3.
- ^ ISSN 1040-6182.
- ^ Gspurning, Lazar & Sulzer 2006, p. 61.
- ^ a b Nüsser & Dame 2015, p. 66.
- ^ a b Almaraz, Guillermo. "Tres Cruces Norte".
- ^ a b Gardeweg et al. 2000, p. 293.
- ISBN 978-1-4614-3133-6.
- ^ a b c Kay, Coira & Mpodozis 2008, p. 170.
- ^ a b c d e f Gardeweg et al. 2000, p. 294.
- ^ a b c "Tres Cruces". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution., Synonyms & Subfeatures
- ^ a b c d Rubiolo et al. 2003, p. 45.
- ^ Rubiolo et al. 2003, p. 44.
- ^ a b Guzmán et al. 2014, p. 176.
- ^ Gardeweg et al. 2000, p. 295.
- ^ Loyola et al. 2023, pp. 4, 6.
- ^ a b c Rubiolo et al. 2003, p. 40.
- ^ Gardeweg et al. 2000, pp. 293–294.
- ISSN 0260-3055.
- ^ Nüsser & Dame 2015, pp. 68–69.
- ^ Lliboutry, L.; González, O.; Simken, J. (1958). "Les glaciers du désert chilien". Extrait des Comptes Rendus et Rapports. Assemblee Generale de Toronto (in French). 4: 298.
- ^ Flores, Betzabé; García, Ayón; Ulloa, Christopher (December 2018). Evolución espacial y temporal de glaciares descubiertos en la Región de Atacama, Chile (PDF). 15th Chilean Geological Congress (in Spanish). p. 742. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
- ^ Gspurning, Lazar & Sulzer 2006, p. 69.
- ^ García et al. 2017, p. 7.
- ISSN 0719-5370.
- S2CID 128436981.
- S2CID 18111576.
- ^ García et al. 2017, p. 10.
- ^ Moreno & Gibbons 2007, p. 148.
- ^ a b Goss, Kay & Mpodozis 2011, p. 103.
- ^ a b Moreno & Gibbons 2007, p. 150.
- ^ Moreno & Gibbons 2007, p. 147.
- ^ Grosse et al. 2018, p. 5.
- ^ Goss, Kay & Mpodozis 2011, p. 104.
- ^ Kay, Coira & Mpodozis 2008, p. 166.
- ISSN 0717-7356.
- ^ Nüsser & Dame 2015, p. 67.
- ^ Espinosa, Marión; Bustamante, Ana María; Orellana, Lesly; Henríquez, Gabriel; Ortíz, Gabriel; Altamirano A., Tania V.; Poblete, Verónica; Cárdenas Gasmuri, María Ilia; Mancilla, Bárbara (2013). Recorriendo los humedales altoandinos de Arica a Atacama : vida y refugio de la biodiversidad. (Pub. CIREN N°175) (Report) (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 3 August 2021.
- ^ Nüsser & Dame 2015, p. 74.
- ^ Marek, Aneta (2016). "Andy jako rejon eksploracji górskiej Polaków do 1989 r." (PDF). Słupskie Prace Geograficzne (in Polish). 13: 89. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 June 2023.
- .
- ^ Grosse et al. 2018, p. 19.
- ^ Grosse et al. 2018, p. 20.
- ^ Guzmán et al. 2014, p. 187.
- ^ Grosse et al. 2018, p. 21.
- ISSN 0717-7305. Archived from the original(PDF) on June 29, 2021. Retrieved 20 August 2021.
- ^ Fernandez-Turiel et al. 2019, p. 22.
- ^ Fernandez-Turiel et al. 2019, p. 23.
- S2CID 198756179.
- ISSN 1852-1479.
- S2CID 266392853.
Sources
- Fernandez-Turiel, J. L.; Perez-Torrado, F. J.; Rodriguez-Gonzalez, A.; Saavedra, J.; Carracedo, J. C.; Rejas, M.; Lobo, A.; Osterrieth, M.; Carrizo, J. I.; Esteban, G.; Gallardo, J.; Ratto, N. (30 June 2019). "La gran erupción de hace 4.2 ka cal en Cerro Blanco, Zona Volcánica Central, Andes: nuevos datos sobre los depósitos eruptivos holocenos en la Puna sur y regiones adyacentes". Estudios Geológicos (in Spanish). 75 (1): e088. S2CID 181824845.
- García, Ayôn; Ulloa, Christopher; Amigo, Gonzalo; Milana, Juan Pablo; Medina, Catherine (May 2017). "An inventory of cryospheric landforms in the arid diagonal of South America (high Central Andes, Atacama region, Chile)". Quaternary International. 438: 4–19. ISSN 1040-6182.
- Gardeweg, M.C.; Clavero, J.; Mpodozis, C.; Pérez de A., C.; Villeneuve, M. (2000). EL MACIZO TRES CRUCES: UN COMPLEJO VOLCANICO LONGEVO Y POTENCIALMENTE ACTIVO EN LA ALTA CORDILLERA DE COPIAPO, CHILE (PDF). IX CONGRESO GEOLOGICO CHILENO (in Spanish). Puerto Varas, Chile. Archived from the original(PDF) on November 22, 2015.
- Goss, A. R.; Kay, S. M.; Mpodozis, C. (January 2011). "The geochemistry of a dying continental arc: the Incapillo Caldera and Dome Complex of the southernmost Central Andean Volcanic Zone (~28°S)". Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology. 161 (1): 101–128. S2CID 129735092.
- Grosse, Pablo; Orihashi, Yuji; Guzmán, Silvina R.; Sumino, Hirochika; Nagao, Keisuke (4 April 2018). "Eruptive history of Incahuasi, Falso Azufre and El Cóndor Quaternary composite volcanoes, southern Central Andes". Bulletin of Volcanology. 80 (5): 44. S2CID 134869390.
- Gspurning, Josef; Lazar, Reinhold; Sulzer, Wolfgang (2006). "Regional Climate and Snow/Glacier Distribution in Southern Upper Atacama (Ojos del Salado) - an integrated statistical, GIS and RS based approach" (PDF). Grazer Schriften der Geographie und Raumforschung (in German). 41.
- Guzmán, Silvina; Grosse, Pablo; Montero-López, Carolina; Hongn, Fernando; Pilger, Rex; Petrinovic, Ivan; Seggiaro, Raúl; Aramayo, Alejandro (December 2014). "Spatial–temporal distribution of explosive volcanism in the 25–28°S segment of the Andean Central Volcanic Zone". Tectonophysics. 636: 170–189. ISSN 0040-1951.
- Loyola, Rodrigo; López-Mendoza, Patricio; Carrasco, Carlos; Glascock, Michael D.; Flores-Aqueveque, Valentina; Méndez, Víctor; Varas, Daniel; Orrego, Vanessa (October 2023). "Provenance and long-term circulation of archaeological obsidian in the Puna de Copiapó (25-27°S), South-Central Andes". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 51: 104134. S2CID 260298587.
- Moreno, Teresa; Gibbons, Wes (2007). The Geology of Chile. Geological Society of London. ISBN 978-1-86239-220-5.
- Nüsser, Marcus; Dame, Juliane (2015). Der Ojos del Salado in der Atacama: Forschungsgeschichte und aktuelle Probleme im trockensten Hochgebirge der Erde (PDF) (Report) (in German). Universität Heidelberg.
- Rubiolo, Daniel; Pereyra, Fernando Xavier; Martínez, Liliana del Valle; Seggiaro, Raúl E.; Hongn, Fernando D.; Fernández Seveso, Fernando; Velasco, María S.; Sruoga, Patricia; Prieri, Ana; González Díaz, Emilio F. (2003). Fiambalá 2769-IV, Provincias de Catamarca y La Rioja (PDF) (Report) (in Spanish). ISSN 0328-2333.
- Kay, Suzanne Mahlburg; Coira, Beatriz; Mpodozis, Constantino (2008), "Field trip guide: Neogene evolution of the central Andean Puna plateau and southern Central Volcanic Zone", GSA Field Guide 13: Field Trip Guides to the Backbone of the Americas in the Southern and Central Andes: Ridge Collision, Shallow Subduction, and Plateau Uplift, vol. 13, Geological Society of America, pp. 117–181, ISBN 978-0-8137-0013-7, retrieved 2021-08-03
External links
- Biggar, John (2020). Andes: A Guide for Climbers and Skiers (5th ed.). Castle Douglas (Scotland): Andes. ISBN 978-0953608768.
- "Tres Cruces". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- Andes Handbook (Spanish)
- Tres Cruces (Spanish) [1]