Llullaillaco

Coordinates: 24°43′00″S 68°32′00″W / 24.71667°S 68.53333°W / -24.71667; -68.53333
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For the national park, see Llullaillaco National Park. For the three mummified child sacrifices, see Children of Llullaillaco.

Llullaillaco
Ultra
Coordinates24°43′00″S 68°32′00″W / 24.71667°S 68.53333°W / -24.71667; -68.53333[1]
Geography
Location
Inca

Llullaillaco (Spanish pronunciation: [ʎuʎajˈʎako]) is a dormant stratovolcano on the border between Argentina (Salta Province) and Chile (Antofagasta Region). It lies in the Puna de Atacama, a region of tall volcanic peaks on a high plateau close to the Atacama Desert, one of the driest places in the world. Its maximum elevation is most commonly given as 6723 m, making it the second- or third-highest volcano in the world. Despite its height, it is not clear whether the volcano has any glaciers or merely patches of perennial snow and ice. Between 3700 m and 5000 m elevation there is a sparse plant cover, while at lower altitudes the climate is too dry for plants to grow. A species of mouse on Llullaillaco is the highest-living known vertebrate species.

The volcano formed during the

lava flows
were emplaced on the summit. The youngest dated rocks are 930 ± 140 years old, but there are reports of activity from the 19th century.

The mountain's first recorded climb was in 1950, but traces of earlier climbs and a number of archaeological sites were found on the mountain and at its feet; Llullaillaco marks the highest archaeological site in the world. In 1999, the mummified remains of three children, known as the Children of Llullaillaco, were found at its summit. They are presumed to have been human sacrifices.

Name

The name Llullaillaco is derived from the Quechua word llulla meaning "false", "lie" or "deceitful" and yaku or llaco meaning "water".[3] This name probably refers to meltwater from snow, which flows down the slopes but then is absorbed into the soil;[4][5] normally mountains are sources for water.[6][3] Another possibility is that it refers to the danger from floods in the local valleys.[7] Other translations are (Aymara) "hot water"[8] after lloclla "warm" and yacu "water",[9] and (Quechua) "thinking", "memory"+"water"[10] or "thing that hardens after forming tender" llullu, which may refer to volcanic activity.[6]

Geography and geomorphology

Llullaillaco is located in the northwestern

Inca empire occupied the region.[6]

There are numerous abandoned

salt mines at Salar de Llullaillaco.[22] A weather station installed on Llullaillaco in 2004 was for some time the highest in the world.[23] The region is dry and located at high altitudes, making work in the area difficult.[24] The extreme environmental conditions have been compared to conditions on Mars.[25]

Geomorphology

Llullaillaco seen from Cerro Paranal, 189 km away.

The volcano is an imposing mountain, rising by 3800 m and 3750 m above the Salar de Punta Negra 36 km and Sala de Llullaillaco 20 km away, respectively.[26][24] With a summit height of 6723 m,[27][1][28] (or 6739 m[2]) it is one of the highest mountains in the Andes[14] (third highest in Chile[7] and seventh-highest in the Andes, according to John Biggar[29]) and the second-[1] or third-highest volcano in the world[13] (Ojos del Salado is the highest[27]). In the early 20th century, Llullaillaco was thought to be the highest volcano in the world.[30] The elevation is to a large degree consequence of the underlying terrain, which rises about 4 km above sea level.[31] The height of the mountain and the clear air in the region make Llullaillaco visible from Cerro Paranal, 190 km away as measured through Google Maps.[32] The view from the mountain extends from Licancabur north over the Nevados de Cachi mountains east to[6] Ojos del Salado 250 km south;[33] mountains in between are visible as well.[6]

Llullaillaco is a

lava flows. It rises about 2.2 km[27]-2.5 km above the surrounding terrain[13] and hundreds of metres above surrounding mountains.[14] The summit of Llullaillaco is formed by a small cone with about four associated lava domes,[34] which reach lengths of 1–3 km and have abrupt walls.[35] Three hollows, probably volcanic craters, lie east of a 200 m long crest at the summit.[36] The slopes of the volcano are fairly steep, with an altitude drop of 1800 m over only 3 km horizontal distance.[24][26] The slopes high up are steeper than those at lower altitudes.[37] A plateau at 5600–6100 m elevation is the remnant of an eroded crater[38] from an early stage in Llullaillaco's development.[39]

Llullaillaco seen from space, with lava flows clearly visible.

Three young-looking, 4.5–8 km long

vitrophyric or porphyritic.[40]

Several dry valleys originate on Llullaillaco, including Quebrada de las Zorritas on the north-northeastern slope, Quebrada El Salado and Quebrada Llullaillaco on the northwestern slope, and Quebrada La Barda on the southwestern slope.[49] Most of the dry valleys drain into Salar de Punta Negra.[50] There is little erosion by water,[37] and the valley network is poorly developed.[37] There is water only episodically,[51] during snowmelt.[52] Only Quebrada de las Zorritas carries permanent water.[53] There is a permanent spring there,[54] possibly in Quebrada de Llullaillaco and Quebrada de Tocomar as well,[55] while there are no known springs on the Argentine side of Llullaillaco.[5] Darapsky in 1900 reported the existence of warm springs at Ojo del Llullaillaco and Ojo de Zorritas[56]

Several small lakes are found at 5850 m elevation.[57] At 6170 m elevation on the northwestern flank is Lago Llullaillaco lake,[58] a 1.2–1.4 hectares (3.0–3.5 acres) frozen waterbody.[58] It is one of the highest lakes in the world.[59]

  • Llullaillaco during sunset
    Llullaillaco during sunset
  • Llullailaco with a road leading to the mountain.
    Llullailaco with a road leading to the mountain.
  • Llullaillaco from the base camp.
    Llullaillaco from the base camp.
  • Lava flow from Llullaillaco
    Lava flow from Llullaillaco
  • Llullaillaco in Salta
    Llullaillaco in Salta

Debris avalanche

A major landslide occurred in the volcano's history during the late Pleistocene, probably triggered by volcanic activity.[60] This landslide descended the eastern-southeastern flanks of the volcano into Argentina,[40][2] first over a steep slope of 20° on the volcano,[61] split around Cerro Rosado and entered the Salina de Llullaillaco 25 km east of the summit,[40] extending up to 5 km into the salar.[62] The toe of the avalanche reaches a thickness of 10 m above the salar in the avalanche's southern lobe. Part of the avalanche was channelled in a valley between Cerro Rosado and an unnamed volcano farther south.[63] When it reached Cerro Rosado, the avalanche climbed about 400 m and mostly continued to flow southeast into the main avalanche path, with only a small flow continuing northeastwards. Part of the run-up avalanche later collapsed backwards over the main avalanche deposit.[64] Unlike Socompa farther north, a landslide scar is only poorly developed at Llullaillaco despite the large size of the collapse;[65] it was largely filled in later by lava flows and volcaniclastic debris.[66]

This landslide has been subdivided into four

lava bombs less than 1 m long, blocks exceeding 2 m width, cobbles, and gravel-like rocks.[69] The largest blocks with sizes of up to 20 m are found close to the collapse scarp.[64] Overall, the margins of the landslide are very crisp and the surface covered by hummocks.[70]

The landslide deposit covers a surface of about 165 square kilometres (64 sq mi).

Colima, Lastarria, and Mount St. Helens debris avalanches.[71] The landslide occurred no later than 156,000 – 148,000 ± 5,000 years ago,[40] it might coincide with the 48,000 year old lava flow.[61] Another possibility is that the collapse took place in multiple failures.[72] Some volcanic rocks were still hot at the time of the collapse, indicating that volcanic activity occurred immediately before the collapse.[65] A smaller undated avalanche occurred on the northeastern flank.[40]

Such landslides are common at volcanoes, where they are favoured by the steep edifices that form from lava flows being stacked on top of each other. It is not usually known what triggers the collapse, although

Ollague, San Pedro, Socompa, and Tata Sabaya.[73] The Mellado and Cerro Rosado volcanoes close to Llullaillaco also display evidence of sector collapses.[66]

Geology

Regional setting

Volcanism in the Andes is caused by the

Juan Fernandez Ridge in the one between the CVZ and SVZ, and the gap between the SVZ and AVZ is associated with the Chile Triple Junction.[74][75] Minor ridges are associated with decreased volcanism rather than its cessation; the Taltal Ridge projects under Llullaillaco, an area where magma output was less than to the north and south.[76]

About 178 volcanoes are found in the Andes, 60 of which have been active in historical times. In addition, there are large calderas and monogenetic volcanoes.[74]

Llullaillaco is one

Wadati-Benioff zone lies at 180 km depth.[82]

Local setting

The region is dominated by large volcanic cones (often more than 6000 m high) in the

warm springs at its western and southwestern shores.[22] Due east of Salar de Llullaillaco is Salar de Arizaro.[88]

The terrain around Llullaillaco consists of

alluvial sediments, debris and pumice.[21]

Volcanism in the Central Andes began during the

back-arc mafic volcanism. A slowdown in the subduction may have caused this change. Nowadays most volcanism occurs at the western edge of the Puna, where volcanoes such as Lascar and Llullaillaco formed.[77][94]

Volcanism in the Central Volcanic Zone may be affected by deep-seated lineaments, such as the Olacapato-El Toro and Archibarca lineaments,

geothermal systems form.[96][79] They extend diagonally across the volcanic arc and are accompanied by volcanic manifestations at substantial distances from the arc.[94] The Archibarca lineament runs[97] from the Escondida copper deposit,[98] over Llullaillaco (where it crosses the volcanic arc),[99] Corrida de Cori, Archibarca, Antofalla to the Galán caldera;[100] it influenced the development of Llullaillaco.[77] Other faults are the northeast-southwest trending Guanaqueros[101] and the northwest-southeast trending Imilac-Salina del Fraile; Llullaillaco formed on the trace of the latter fault.[102]

Composition

Llullaillaco has produced

sphene, sulfides and zircon are rare.[40][107] Some phenocrysts show evidence of a complex history.[104] Older rocks contain hematite.[40] Elemental sulfur is found at Llullaillaco,[108] specifically at Azufrera Esperanto;[35] sulfur reserves are estimated to amount to 210,000 tonnes (210,000 long tons; 230,000 short tons).[109]

Trace element data are typical for Central Volcanic Zone rocks.[106] Rocks become more felsic the younger they are:[106] Older rocks contain more quartz and biotite than recent ones,[110] and display higher iron and lower alkali metal contents.[103]

The composition may reflect magma differentiation in a solitary magma chamber, but with occasional replenishment with more primitive/[106] differentiated melts.[106] Processes in the chamber such as magma mixing and plagioclase crystallization[111] yielded melts with homogeneous composition and low volatile concentrations that upon eruption formed viscous lava flows.[104] A lithospheric structure probably directed magma flows over long time periods along the same pathway,[71] and magma interacted with the crust as it ascended.[104] The depth of the magma source probably varied over the history of the volcano.[112] The total magma output at Llullaillaco is about 0.05 cubic kilometres per millennium (0.012 cu mi/ka)[47]-0.02–0.04 km3/ka.[45]

Climate

The climate in the region is cold, dry

day where Earth is closest to the Sun.[119][26]

Mean annual precipitation reaches 20–50 millimetres (0.79–1.97 in),

rainshadow effect of the Andes, air subsidence within South Pacific High, and the cold Humboldt Current off the Pacific coast.[120][125] Owing to the high evaporation rates and low precipitation, the soils at Llullaillaco are among the driest on Earth.[118]

The climate has not always been uniformly dry. Between 14,000 and 9,500 years ago

radiocarbon years ago runoff was more intense.[132]

Snow and glaciers

Snow patches on Llullaillaco

It is not clear whether there are

insolation and dry air cause all snow to evaporate before it can form glaciers.[143]

However, Llullaillaco has permanent

snowline lies at 5400–5800 m elevation.[83] Temporary snow cover also occurs.[32] The snowfields on Llullaillaco supply water to the Salar de Punta Negra.[148]

The occurrence of past glaciation at Llullaillaco

late glacial when the climate was moister.[126]

Periglacial phenomena are observed on Llullaillaco, commencing at 4300 m altitude and reaching their maximum around 5100–5400 m on the Chilean and 5350–5700 m on the Argentine side.[122] They are solifluction surfaces, cryoplanation surfaces, block ramparts,[157] and patterned ground.[158] Permafrost is found at higher altitudes[122] and is connected to the snowfields.[144] Cryoplanation and solifluction landforms are also observed on Iris and Mitral.[92] The landforms probably developed during past periods where the climate was more humid.[122]

Flora and fauna

Llullaillaco from Salar Rio Grande
Llullaillaco from Salar Rio Grande
Llullaillaco from Salar de Aguas Calientes IV
Llullaillaco from Salar de Aguas Calientes IV

Vegetation is scarce in the

bofedales) in valleys.[161]

The fauna is represented by

Phyllotis xanthopygus on Llullaillaco; it likely is the highest-elevation permanent population of any known vertebrate species.[165]

photosynthetic organisms are limited to sites with higher water availability.[180]

The area of Llullaillaco is part of the Llullaillaco National Park,[181] a protected area[182] created in 1995[9] and is named after the mountain.[183] Air pollution from the Escondida copper mine may reach Llullaillaco and threaten ecosystems there.[184]

Archaeology

In the 1950s a number of archaeological sites were discovered on Llullaillaco.[185] After the initial discovery in 1952, further expeditions by various researchers and organizations took place in 1953, 1954, 1958, 1961, 1974, 1983, 1984, 1985 and 1993.[186] Some sites were looted after their discovery.[187]

Archeological site at the top of Llullaillaco

Three Inca roads come to Llullaillaco from Salar de Llullaillaco,

base camp for ascents.[190] On the road from Salar de Llullaillaco[188] is a cemetery, where 16 bodies were found in 1972.[187] The cemetery may host the bodies of people killed in the construction of the Llullaillaco archaeological sites.[191] Half-destroyed walls[187] form a building complex, which was built on terraces[192] and partly buried by loose debris from the mountain above.[193] Two water sites lie between the cemetery and the tambo.[83]

An Inca ceremonial path begins at the tambo and leads up the volcano. It is 1.5–2 m wide (narrower in steeper reaches)[191] and marked by wooden posts[194] and cairns, probably for the case that the path is covered in snow.[83] It continues past two waystations[83] at 5600 m and 6300 m elevation, which consist of small buildings and protecting walls.[190] At 6500 m altitude, the path splits at the so-called "Portezuelo del Inca". One continues to the summit, the other to a plateau at 6715 m elevation.[83] Another set of protecting walls and small buildings form another waystation at 6550 m elevation.[190] Two enclosures and a 11 m × 6 m platform are on the plateau,[83] forming the highest archaeological site on Earth.[195]

The Inca roads connect with the major north–south

Copiapo.[197] Infrastructure such as road markers,[199] shelters[200] and tambos are found along the road close to Llullaillaco.[201] The paths on Llullaillaco are not simple footpaths but equipped with retaining walls, delimited edges[202] and above "Portezuelo del Inca" with staircases.[83] They were built by the Inca,[83] their construction methods perhaps reflecting Inca mythology.[203] They were discovered by Mathias Rebitsch in 1958.[204]

Llullaillaco appears to have been the most important Inca

sacred mountain in the region[205] and possibly all of the Central Andes,[55] and the complex of archaeological sites is one of the most significant in the Andes.[36] In the case of Llullaillaco, they may have been sites of pilgrimage[192] used by the local Atacama people during Inca rule,[206] no evidence of pre-Inca activity has been found.[207] About forty-five structures have been identified at Llullaillaco, distributed across several sites and with clear architectonic differences, implying not all of them were built by the state.[83] Among the structures are stone circles and roofed buildings.[208] Archeological sites are also found in the valleys that drain Llullaillaco towards the Salar de Punta Negra,[209] including the Quebrada Llullaillaco and the Quebrada de las Zorritas[210] where the Inca paths ascend the mountain.[211] The complex of archaeological sites has become subject of scientific research.[212]

Archaeological sites on mountains are widespread in the Andes, with forty mountains featuring sites in Salta Province alone.[186] Because of the findings, the summit area of the volcano in 2001 was classified as a Lugar Histórico Nacional by the government of Argentina,[213] and in 24 June 2014 the entire Llullaillaco complex was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.[214] A number of myths are associated with Llullaillaco,[30] and the mountain is still important to the inhabitants of Socaire[215] east of the Salar de Atacama,[216] from where it is visible.[217] Some ascents are done for ritual reasons.[218]

Children of Llullaillaco

Main article: Children of Llullaillaco

In March 1999, excavations of the platform

pre-Columbian mummies[212] owing to the cold, dry and oxygen-poor conditions of the summit[226] which prevent microbial decay of the bodies[227] - except for the youngest mummy, which had been damaged by lightning.[219]

They were ostensibly human sacrifices offered to the gods of the

Incan pantheon on mountaintops.[228]
Inca human sacrifices were initiated for various reasons, either to mark particular events such as the death of an
Inca emperor, to appease nature during natural disasters or to secure resources from the mountain gods. The chosen sacrifices were children, as the gods were thought to prefer pure offerings, preferably children with unblemished bodies and virgin girls. According to historical sources and analyses of the mummies, the children came from families with high social standing and were well nourished. They were brought to mountains thousands of kilometres away and killed at the top.[223][229]

Other archaeological objects found along with the mummies included: Bags made out of

statues representing both people (male and female) and animals made out of gold, silver or Spondylus (oyster) shells, shoes and textiles,[11][185] wooden and woolen vessels. The vessels and bags contained coca leaves, hairs and human nails.[185] A total of 145 objects were found together with the mummies.[230]

Their discovery drew interest among specialists and the public,[11] and has been cited as a cause for increased tourism to the mountain[231] and increased attention dedicated to native people issues in the region.[232] In 2003 the mummies were at the Catholic University of Salta,[219] before being transferred to the Museum of High Altitude Archaeology of Argentina in 2007,[233] which had been built explicitly to host these mummies.[234] They are kept under special storage conditions to prevent damage.[235] The bodies found at Llullaillaco - both the mummies on the summit and these in the cemetery - have been subject to various scientific analyses.[236] The placement of the mummies in museums led to lengthy disputes with organizations advocating the rights of indigenous people.[237]

Eruption history

At least two stages of construction are recognized, Llullaillaco I and Llullaillaco II. The first stage originated from two centres

hydrothermal alteration[89] and buried by more recent volcanic rocks, but still make up about 70% of the surface of the volcano especially in its western sector. The former crater of Llullaillaco forms a plateau at 5600–6100 m elevation.[34] At the 5561 m high Azufrera Esperanto mountain 5 km north of Llullaillaco little original volcanic substance is preserved and where erosion has exposed deeply altered white rock.[34] Llullaillaco II on the southern and northeastern flank is better preserved; the toes of the lava flows reach thicknesses of 500 m.[40] Its lava flows are less extensive than the ones of Llullaillaco I.[82] Pyroclastic flow deposits with a composition similar to Llullaillaco II are found on the southern slope of the volcano and may have formed before the lava eruptions began.[35]

An older unit is formed by ignimbrites and pyroclastic flows.[82] Older lava flows extend west from the volcano and are partly buried by sediments closer to the edifice.[34] The landslide probably took place during an eruption.[60] An explosive eruption of Llullaillaco II produced a 3 km long deposit of lava blocks and pyroclastic pumice,[238][35] with fallout reaching Cerro Rosado.[42] It is possible that some lava flows interacted with glaciers, causing them to melt,[151] and volcanic rocks overran glacial[239] and periglacial landforms.[240]

The oldest dated rocks at Llullaillaco were erupted 1.5 ± 0.4 million years ago, forming a lava flow northwest of Llullaillaco's main edifice.

argon-argon dating)[40] on the southwestern flow[18] and 930 ± 140 years (surface exposure dating) on an unidentified young flow.[241]

Historical activity and hazards

Llullaillaco has been active in historical time, making it the highest historically active volcano on Earth.[2] Three eruptions were recorded during the 19th century,[242] which were however not directly observed:[243]

Activity was probably limited to the emission of steam and ash, given the presence of the archaeological sites.[247] Other reports mention eruptions in 1920, 1931, 1936 and 1960.[238]

According to anecdotes recorded in the 19th century, the mountain occasionally smoked,[248][249] including during the mapping of the Chile-Argentina border on 5 May 1879.[250] Allegedly palaeontologist and zoologist Rodolfo Amando Philippi saw the mountain smoke in 1854,[248] but Philippi's own report makes no mention of smoke.[251]

The volcano is currently considered

dormant[27] and there are no known fumaroles,[252] but Lago Llullaillaco[165] and some ice on the volcano bear traces of geothermal heating.[147] There are warm springs around Salar de Llullaillaco.[253] Llullaillaco is classified as Argentina's 16th most dangerous volcano in a list of 38.[254] Future eruptive activity may result in the emission of pyroclastic flows and lava flows[238] and may cause sector collapses, although they would be a small danger to life or property, given that the area is sparsely inhabited and largely devoid of economic activity.[61][255]

Climbing and access

The easiest ascent is along the former Inca route on the northeastern flank of the mountain,

base camp was inaugurated in 2020.[258]

The volcano can be reached from Argentina via Tolar Grande.[231] Access from Chile is through roads which from Chile Route 5, Socompa Pass, Taltal or Toconao lead to Salar de Punta Negra.[259] From there, a road leads to Llullaillaco. It splits at Aguada de las Zorritas in three: One road ends close to a mountain pass north of Llullaillaco, a second ends at Azufrera Esperanto and the third rounds the volcano from southwest, crossing into Argentina south of Llullaillaco.[21] According to John Biggar, some roads are dead ends. Two ascents with camps lead from Chile and Argentina to the summit.[260]

The first known ascent by

Westerners was by the Chileans Bion González and Juan Harsheim in 1952[220] but the indigenous people had ascended it long before. The volcano is the highest mountain with proven prehistoric ascents[261][262] and demonstrates that high altitudes were no obstacle to indigenous people in the Americas,[263] who also built on mountains with primitive technology.[264]

See also

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Sources

Bibliography

External links

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Reise durch die Wüste Atacama, auf Befehl der Chilenischen Regierung im Sommer 1853–54 unternommen. Anton. 1860.

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