Nudge theory
Part of a series on |
Nudge theory |
---|
Nudge theory is a concept in
The nudge concept was popularized in the 2008 book
There have been some controversies regarding effectiveness of nudges. Maier et al. wrote that, after correcting the publication bias found by Mertens et al., there is no evidence that nudging would have any effect.[8] "Nudging" is an umbrella term referring to many techniques, and skeptics believe some nudges (e.g. default effect) can be highly effective while others have little to no effect, and call for future work that shift away from investigating average effects but focus on moderators instead.[9] A meta analysis of all unpublished nudging studies carried by nudge units with over 23 million individuals in the United Kingdom and United States found support for many nudges, but with substantially weaker effects than effects found in published studies.[10] Moreover, some researchers criticized the "one-nudge-for-all" approach and advocated for more studies and implementations of personalized nudging (based on individual differences), which appear to be substantially more effective, with a more robust and consistent evidence base.[11][12]
Nudges
Definition
The first formulation of the term nudge and associated principles was developed in
In 2008, Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein's book Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness brought nudge theory to prominence.[15][16] The authors refer to the influencing of behaviour without coercion as libertarian paternalism and the influencers as choice architects.[17][18]
Thaler and Sunstein defined their concept as the following:[19]: 6
A nudge, as we will use the term, is any aspect of the choice architecture that alters people's behavior in a predictable way without forbidding any options or significantly changing their economic incentives. To count as a mere nudge, the intervention must be easy and cheap to avoid. Nudges are not mandates. Putting fruit at eye level counts as a nudge. Banning junk food does not.
In this form, drawing on behavioral economics, the nudge is more generally applied in order to influence behaviour.
One of the most frequently cited examples of a nudge is the etching of the
The book also gained a following among US and UK politicians, in the private sector and in public health.[21]
Overview
A nudge makes it more likely that an individual will make a particular choice, or behave in a particular way, by altering the environment so that automatic
An individual's behaviour is not always in alignment with their intentions (a discrepancy known as a value-action gap).[23] It is common knowledge that humans are not fully rational beings; that is, people will often do something that is not in their own self-interest, even when they are aware that their actions are not in their best interest.[16] As an example, when hungry, people who diet often underestimate their ability to lose weight, and their intentions to eat healthy can be temporarily weakened until they are satiated.[24]
Nobel Laureate
Nudging techniques aim to use
Techniques
Nudges are small changes in the environment that are easy and inexpensive to implement.[22] Several different techniques exist for nudging, including defaults, social-proof heuristics, and increasing the salience of the desired option.
A
A social-proof heuristic refers to the tendency of people to look at the behavior of others to help guide their own behavior. Studies have found some success in using social-proof heuristics to nudge people to make healthier food choices.[29]
When people's attention is drawn toward a particular option, that option will become more salient and they will be more likely to choose it. As an example, in snack shops at train stations in the Netherlands, consumers purchased more fruit and healthy snack options when they were relocated next to the cash register.[26] Since then, other similar studies have been made regarding the placement of healthier food options close to the checkout counter and the effect on the consuming behavior of the customers and this is now considered an effective and well-accepted nudge.[30]
Application
Behavioral insights and nudges are currently used in many countries around the world.[31][32]
Government
There are various notable examples of government applications of nudge theory.
During their terms, both U.K. Prime Minister David Cameron and U.S. President Barack Obama may have sought to employ nudge theory to advance domestic policy goals in their respective countries.[35] In 2008, the United States appointed Cass Sunstein, who helped develop the theory, as administrator of the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs.[17][36][37] In 2010, the British Behavioural Insights Team, or "Nudge Unit," was established at the British Cabinet Office and headed by psychologist David Halpern.[38]
In Australia, the state Government of New South Wales established a Nudge Unit of its own in 2012.[39] In 2016, the federal government followed suit, forming the Behavioural Economics Team of Australia (BETA) as the "central unit for applying behavioural insights...to public policy."[40]
In 2020, the British government of Boris Johnson decided to rely on nudge theory to fight the coronavirus pandemic, with Chief Scientific Adviser Patrick Vallance seeking to encourage “herd immunity” with this strategy.[41]
Business
Nudge theory has also been applied to
For instance, nudge is applied to health, safety, and environment (HSE) with the primary goals of achieving a "zero accident culture."[42] The concept is also used as a key component in a lot of human-resources software.
Particular forerunners in the application of nudge theory in corporate settings are top Silicon Valley companies. These companies are using nudges in various forms to increase productivity and happiness of employees. Recently, more companies are gaining interest in using what is called "nudge management" to improve the productivity of their white-collar workers.[43]
Healthcare
Lately, nudge theory has also been used in different ways to help
Mandatory display of inspector reports of eatery hygiene as a public 'nudge', have received mixed responses in different countries. A recent meta-analytic review of the hygiene ratings across North America, Europe, Asia, and Oceania has shown that inspector ratings (usually a smiley or a letter grade) is useful at times, but not informative enough for consumers.[46]
Fundraising
Nudge theory can also be applied to fundraising, helping to increase donor contributions and increase continuous donations from the same individual, as well as to entice new donors to give.[47]
There are some simple strategies used when applying nudge theory to this area. for example during holidays.
Although many nudging theories have been useful to increase donations and donors, many scholars question the ethics of using such techniques on the population.[54] Ruehle et al. (2020), state that one has to always consider an individual's autonomy when designing nudges for a fundraising campaign. They state that the power of others behind messaging and potentially intrusive prompting can cause concern and may be seen as manipulative of donor's autonomy.[54]
Artificial intelligence
Nudges are used at many levels in AI algorithms, for example recommender systems, and their consequences are still being investigated. Two articles appeared in Minds & Machines in 2018 addressed the relation between nudges and Artificial Intelligence, explaining how persuasion and psychometrics can be used by personalised targeting algorithms to influence individual and collective behaviour, sometimes also in unintended ways. [55] [56] In 2020 an article in AI & Society addressed the use of this technology in Algorithmic Regulation. [57]
A piece in the Harvard Business Review published in 2021 was one of the first articles to coin the term "Algorithmic Nudging" (see also
While the concept builds on the work by University of Chicago economist Richard Thaler and Harvard Law School professor Cass Sunstein, "due to recent advances in AI and machine learning, algorithmic nudging is much more powerful than its non-algorithmic counterpart. With so much data about workers’ behavioral patterns at their fingertips, companies can now develop personalized strategies for changing individuals’ decisions and behaviors at large scale. These algorithms can be adjusted in real-time, making the approach even more effective."[58]
Tourism
One concern researchers in enjoyment-focused contexts, such as tourism, raised is a gap between attitude, intention and behaviour[59][60] because tourists seek pleasure.[61] Several empirical pieces of evidence in the tourism suggest the nudge theory's high effectiveness in reducing the burden of tourists' activities on the environment.[62][63] For instance, tourists consumed more ethical foods,[64] selected more sustainable hotels,[65][66] reused towels and bed linen during hotel stays,[67] increased their intentions to reduce their energy consumption,[68] increased the adoption of tourists' voluntary carbon offsetting[69] and many other examples.
Education
Nudges in education are techniques used to subtly guide students towards making better choices and achieving their academic goals. These nudges are based on the principles of
Nudging in Education: Promises and Challenges
Similar to nudging in other areas, nudging in education aims to help individuals achieve desired behaviors they may struggle with due to habits or lack of motivation. For students, this could mean meeting deadlines, paying attention in class, or staying organized. Some promising examples include sending text reminders to parents to increase home literary activities and providing information about famous scientists' struggles to improve student grades. However, challenges remain. It's unclear if nudges lead to long-lasting changes or how they work over time once removed. Additionally, it's essential to ensure that nudges align with educational principles and have a positive impact on students. More research is needed to understand how nudges influence behavior and cognitive processes in education effectively.
While nudging shows potential in education, questions remain about its long-term effectiveness and how it fits within educational principles. Nudges should not only focus on end goals but also consider the cognitive processes and behaviors they influence. By understanding these aspects, educators can ensure that nudges promote positive educational practices and help students develop lasting habits. However, the implementation of nudging in education remains limited, highlighting the need for further exploration and development in this area[70]
Behavior economics concepts commonly use in education[71]
Cognitive depletion | When a person has to make difficult or complex choices |
Cognitive overload | Being challenging for a person to make rational choices because of the complexity of the choice |
Framing | How a choice is described is called framing. If a choice is framed in more positive ways, it is easier for a person to make that choice |
Loss aversion | A phenomenon when people dislike losing to a greater extent than the happiness they get when winning. Behavioral economists can use this aversion to loss to nudge people to behavior changes. |
Narrow bracketing | Describes the process that people use to make complicated decisions by breaking them into smaller decisions. Sometimes this strategy leads people to make inaccurate decisions |
Salience | describes how a person is more likely to make a choice about something that has been more visible as a choice or more salient while ignoring other choices that were less visible |
Time-inconsistency | describes how people make choices that are different based on when they are asked to make the choice. For example, a person might make a different choice when they are very tired at the end of a long day than a choice made at the beginning of the day |
Default Options | are commonly used in behavioral economics nudges default options. The default option occurs if no choice or action is taken |
Critique
The evidence on nudging having any effect has been criticized as "limited", so Mertens et al. produced a comprehensive meta-analysis. They found that nudging is effective but there is a moderate publication bias. Later Maier et al. computed that, after correcting for this publication bias appropriately, there is no evidence that nudging would have any effect.[8]
Tammy Boyce, from the public health foundation
Cass Sunstein has responded to criticism at length in his 2016 book, The Ethics of Influence: Government in the Age of Behavioral Science,[73] making the case in favor of nudging, against charges that nudges diminish autonomy,[74] threaten dignity, violate liberties, or reduce welfare. He previously defended nudge theory in his 2014 book Why Nudge?: The Politics of Libertarian Paternalism[75] by arguing that choice architecture is inevitable and that some form of paternalism cannot be avoided.
Ethicists have debated nudge theory rigorously.[76] These charges have been made by various participants in the debate from Bovens (2009)[77] to Goodwin (2012).[78] Wilkinson, for example, charges nudges for being manipulative, while others such as Yeung (2012) question their scientific credibility.[79]
Public opinion on the ethicality of nudges has also been shown to be susceptible to “partisan nudge bias.”[80] Research from David Tannenbaum, Craig R. Fox, and Todd Rogers (2017) found that adults and policymakers in the United States believed behavioral policies to be more ethical when they aligned with their own political leanings.[80] Conversely, people took these same mechanisms to be more unethical when they differed from their politics.[80] The researchers also found that nudges are not inherently partisan: when evaluating behavioral policies absent of political cues, people across the political spectrum were alike in their assessments.[80]
When considering the future designers that would be creating these nudges, a study by Willermark and Islind (2022) showed that more than 50% of design students have positive attitudes towards the implementation of nudges as a form of choice architecture. The participants argued that "many people benefit from getting a little nudge", while about 40% have ambivalent or negative attitudes towards the concept stating that "We simply should not change the path of people’s choices".[81]
Some, such as Hausman and Welch (2010)[82] as well as Roberts (2018)[83] and Mrkva (2021) have inquired whether nudging should be permissible on grounds of distributive justice. Though Roberts (2018) argued that nudges do not benefit vulnerable, low-income individuals as much as individuals who are less vulnerable, Mrkva's research suggests that nudges benefit low-income and low-SES people most, if anything increasing distributive justice and reducing the disparity between those with high and low financial literacy.[84] This research suggests that in situations where consumers lack knowledge regarding their choices and are therefore more prone to choosing the wrong one, the implementation of 'good nudges' can be ethically justified.[84] The same study also states that nudges have the potential to "increase firm profits while decreasing consumer welfare".[84]
Lepenies and Malecka (2015)[85] have questioned whether nudges are compatible with the rule of law. Similarly, legal scholars have discussed the role of nudges and the law.[86][87]
Behavioral economists such as Bob Sugden have pointed out that the underlying normative benchmark of nudging is still homo economicus, despite the proponents' claim to the contrary.[88]
It has been remarked that nudging is also a
There exists an anticipation and, simultaneously, implicit criticism of the nudge theory in works of Hungarian social psychologists Ferenc Mérei[91] and László Garai,[92] who emphasize the active participation in the nudge of its target.
The authors of a book titled Neuroliberalism: Behavioural Government in the Twenty-First Century (2017), argue that, while there is much value and diversity in behavioural approaches to government, there are significant ethical issues, including the danger of the neurological sciences being co-opted to the needs of neo-liberal economics.[93]
See also
- Choice architecture
- Commitment device
- Constructal Law - Design evolution in nature, animate and inanimate
- Dark pattern
- Default effect
- List of cognitive biases
- Negarchy
- Psychohistory (fictional)
- Thinking, Fast and Slow
- Race to the Top
References
- ^ S2CID 173172300.
- .
- PMID 31417106.
- .
- .
- ^ "Behavioural Insights". EU Science Hub. 2015-05-06. Retrieved 28 March 2019.
- ^ PMID 35858389.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - PMID 35858388.
- .
- PMID 25617673.
- S2CID 242479520. Archived from the original(PDF) on 25 June 2020. Retrieved 5 December 2022.
- ISBN 978-90-481-5242-1
- ^ O'Hanlon, Bill, and Wilk, James (1987), Shifting Contexts: The generation of effective psychotherapy, New York: Guilford Press.
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Nudge Theory". www.businessballs.com. Retrieved 2021-05-03.
- ^ S2CID 44192004.
- ^ a b Andrew Sparrow (2008-08-22). "Speak 'Nudge': The 10 key phrases from David Cameron's favorite book". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
- ^ Carrasco-Villanueva, Marco (2017-10-18). "Richard Thaler y el auge de la Economía Conductual". Lucidez (in Spanish). Retrieved 2018-10-31.
- ^ a b c Thaler, Richard, and Cass Sunstein (2008). Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness. Penguin Books.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Have you been nudged? BBC, 2017
- ^ See: Dr. Jennifer Lunt and Malcolm Staves Archived 2012-04-30 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ PMID 23427215.
- ^ S2CID 143964979.
- PMID 19025267.
- ^ S2CID 143673378.
- ^ PMID 26186924.
- .
- .
- S2CID 13796944.
- PMID 29252010.
- ISBN 9781234567897.
- ^ Bradshaw, Della (2015-11-15). "How a little nudge can lead to better decisions". Financial Times. Financial Times LTD. Retrieved 2020-05-08.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-108-24441-1. Retrieved 9 September 2021.
- ISBN 978-1-59826-669-6.
- Independent.co.uk. 12 August 2010.
- ^ Carol Lewis (2009-07-22). "Why Barack Obama and David Cameron are keen to 'nudge' you". The Times. London. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
- ^ James Forsyth (2009-07-16). "Nudge, nudge: meet the Cameroons' new guru". The Spectator. Archived from the original on 2009-01-24. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
- ^ "About Us". Behavioural Insights Team.
- ^ "About Us". Behavioural Insights. NSW Department of Premier and Cabinet. Archived from the original on 2014-06-16.
- ^ "Behavioural Insights". New South Wales Department of Premier and Cabinet. Archived from the original on 2014-06-16. Retrieved May 3, 2021.
- ^ "The UK's Covid-19 strategy dangerously leaves too many questions unanswered". www.theguardian.com. 15 March 2020. Retrieved 16 March 2020.
- ^ "Cast No Shadow" (PDF). Rydermarsh.co.uk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017.
- .
- PMID 28974467.
- S2CID 44064352.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - – via IGI Global.
- ^ a b c d Behavioural Insights Team. 2013 May 24. "Applying behavioural insights to charitable giving." London: Cabinet Office and Charities Aid Foundation. pp. 1-25.
- ^ Behavioural Insights Team. 2012 February 6. "Applying behavioural insights to reduce fraud, error and debt." London: Cabinet Office. pp. 185–86.
- ^ Small, D. A., and G. Loewenstein. 2003. "Helping a victim or helping the victim: Altruism and identifiability." Journal of Risk and uncertainty 26(1):5-16.
- ^ Small, D. A., G. Loewenstein, and P. Slovic. 2007. "Sympathy and callousness: The impact of deliberative thought on donations to identifiable and statistical victims." Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 102(2):143–53.
- ^ Bernheim, B. D. 1994. "A theory of conformity." Journal of political Economy 102(5):841-77.
- ^ Carman, K. G. (2004). Social influences and the designation of charitable contributions: evidence from the workplace. Harvard University Journal, 1.
- ^ Breman, A. 2011. "Give more tomorrow: Two field experiments on altruism and intertemporal choice." Journal of Public Economics 95(11-12):1349-57.
- ^ a b Ruehle, R. C., B. Engelen, and A. Archer. 2020. "Nudging Charitable Giving: What (If Anything) Is Wrong With It?" Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 0899764020954266.
- PMID 30930542.
- S2CID 85528082.
- S2CID 140233845.
- ^ a b Möhlmann, Mareike (April 22, 2021). "Algorithmic Nudges Don't Have to Be Unethical". Harvard Business Review.
- ISBN 978-1-80037-747-9.
- ISSN 0160-7383.
- S2CID 245527541.
- S2CID 246764759, retrieved 2022-08-25
- S2CID 246647301.
- S2CID 225271326.
- S2CID 204430801.
- S2CID 159197495.
- S2CID 158073416.
- S2CID 155408510.
- S2CID 224999306.
- ^ ISSN 0256-2928.
- ISSN 1867-299X.
- ^ Lakhani, Nina (December 7, 2008). "Unhealthy lifestyles here to stay, in spite of costly campaigns". The Independent. London. Retrieved April 28, 2010.
- ISBN 9781107140707.
- SSRN 2672970.
- ISBN 9780300212693.
- ISSN 1878-5158.
- S2CID 141283500.
- S2CID 153597777.
- ISSN 1468-2230.
- ^ a b c d Tannenbaum, David; Fox, Craig R.; Rogers, Todd (2017-07-10). "On the misplaced politics of behavioural policy interventions" (PDF). Harvard Scholar. Volume 1, Article 0130. Nature Human Behaviour. Retrieved 2020-05-08.
- ^ Willermark, Sara; Islind, Anna (2022-09-08). "CHOICE ARCHITECTURE, FRIEND, OR FOE? FUTURE DESIGNERS' PERSPECTIVE ON THE ETHICS OF DIGITAL NUDGES". 13th Scandinavian Conference on Information Systems.
- ISSN 1467-9760.
- S2CID 53516078.
- ^ S2CID 234222361.
- S2CID 144157454.
- ISSN 1474-2640.
- SSRN 2810229.
- ISSN 1865-1704.
- ^ Cass R. Sunstein. "NUDGING AND CHOICE ARCHITECTURE: ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS" (PDF). Law.harvard.edu. Retrieved 11 October 2017.
- ^ "A nudge in the right direction? How we can harness behavioural economics". ABC News. 1 December 2015.
- ^ Mérei, Ferenc (1987). "A peremhelyzet egyik változata: a szociálpszichológiai kontúr" [A variant of the edge-position: the contour socialpsychological]. Pszichológia (in Hungarian). 7: 1–24.
- ISBN 978-1-137-52561-1
- ISBN 9781138923829.
Further reading
- Mols, Frank; Haslam, S. Alexander; Jetten, Jolanda; Steffens, Niklas K. (February 2015). "Why a nudge is not enough: A social identity critique of governance by stealth". European Journal of Political Research. 54 (1): 81–98. .
- Sunstein, Cass R. (2014). Why Nudge?: The Politics of Libertarian Paternalism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300197860.
- —— (2016). The Ethics of Influence: Government in the Age of Behavioral Science. Cambridge Studies in Economics, Choice, and Society. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781316790854.
- Thaler, Richard; Sunstein, Cass (2008). Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300146813.
- Whitehead, Mark; Jones, Rhys; Lilley, Rachel; Pykett, Jessica; Howell, Rachel (2017). Neuroliberalism: Behavioural Government in the Twenty-First Century. Routledge. ISBN 9781317410164.
- Bejan, Adrian (2020), Freedom and Evolution, Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-34008-7
- Bejan, Adrian (2016), The Physics of Life, St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1-250-07882-7