Pamunkey
Total population | |
---|---|
Enrolled members: 430 | |
Regions with significant populations | |
United States ( Virginia) | |
Languages | |
English, formerly Powhatan | |
Religion | |
Indigenous | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Mattaponi, Chickahominy, Patawomeck |
The Pamunkey Indian Tribe is one of 11
When the English arrived, the Pamunkey were one of the most powerful groups of the Powhatan chiefdom. They inhabited the coastal tidewater of Virginia on the north side of the James River near Chesapeake Bay.[8][9]
The Pamunkey Tribe is one of only two that retain the reservation lands assigned by the 1646 and 1677 treaties with the English colonial government.[10] The Pamunkey reservation is located on some of its ancestral land on the Pamunkey River adjacent to present-day King William County, Virginia. The Mattaponi reservation, the only other in the state, is nearby on the Mattaponi River.[10]
Language
Dalrymple's Pamunkey | |
---|---|
Native to | Virginia |
Era | recorded 1844 |
unclassified | |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | None (mis ) |
Glottolog | pamu1240 |
The Pamunkey language is generally assumed to have been Algonquian, but only fourteen words have been preserved, not enough to determine that the language actually was Algonquian.[11][12] The words, which were recorded in 1844 by Reverend E.A. Dalrymple S.T.D., are,[13]
- tonshee 'son', nucksee 'daughter', petucka 'cat', kayyo 'thankfulness', o-ma-yah 'O my Lord', kenaanee 'friendship', baskonee 'thank you', eeskut 'go out dog', nikkut 'one', orijak 'two', kiketock 'three', mitture 'four', nahnkitty 'five', vomtally 'six', talliko 'seven', tingdum 'eight', yantay 'ten'.
Except for nikkut 'one', which is clearly similar to Powhatan nekut, none of the words correspond to any known Algonquian language, or to reconstructions of
Way of living
Subsistence and relationship to the land
The traditional Pamunkey way of life was subsistence living. They lived through a combination of fishing, trapping, hunting, and farming. The latter was developed in the late
The Pamunkey, and all Virginia tribes, had an intimate, balanced relationship with the animals, plants, and the geography of their homeland.
Differing concepts of land and farm animal ownership and use caused some conflicts between the Virginia tribes and English colonists. For native tribes, the land was "owned" only as long as it was farmed; after that, it was available for "public" use. The Englishmen had, instead, laws on private property and believed that the land was theirs as soon as the tribe sold it to them. As a result, when Englishmen allowed land to lie fallow, Native Americans assumed they were free to use it for hunting and gathering. Many Englishmen considered both as encroachments on their private property.[6]
Homes
Pamunkey homes, called yihakans (or yehakins), were long and narrow; they were described as "longhouses" by English colonists. They were structures made from bent saplings lashed together at the top to make a barrel shape. Indians covered the saplings with woven mats or bark. The 17th-century historian William Strachey thought that bark was harder to acquire, as he noticed that only higher-status families owned bark-covered houses. In summer, when the heat and humidity increased, the mats could be rolled up or removed to allow more air circulation.[15]
Inside the house, they built bedsteads along both walls. They were made of posts put in the ground, about a foot high or more, with small poles attached. The framework was about four feet (1.2 m) wide, over which reeds were put. One or more mats were placed on top for bedding; more mats or skins served as blankets, with a rolled mat for a pillow. The bedding was rolled up and stored during the day to make the space available for other functions.[15]
Government
The Pamunkey practice of matrilineal succession also created some confusion for Englishmen, who finally in the 1677
The same 1896 study noted that tribal laws were concerned with, but not limited to, controlling land use, stealing, and fighting (breaking the peace). Instead of using corporal punishment, incarceration, or chastisement, anyone who broke a tribal law was fined or banished.[7] Because the Pamunkey resented that, in the past, outsiders picked out some laws for ridicule, no outsiders are now allowed to see tribal laws.[17]
Tribal laws govern all civil matters. In criminal matters, outside authorities such as a Sheriff or Police, may respectfully notify the Tribal Chief about serving a warrant. But, such action is not legally required. The tribe does not operate a police force or jail. Most tribal members obey the tribal laws out of respect for the chief and the council. The tribe discourages verbal attacks against members. As the former Chief Brown explains, they have strict slander laws because, "We're like a 400-year-old subdivision. If we didn't get along we'd have probably killed each other long before now."[18] The chief continued to pay the annual tribute to Virginia's governor. This consists of game, usually a deer, and pottery or a "peace pipe". The Pamunkey have been paying such tribute since the treaty of 1646. Making this annual payment has not always been easy. Former Chief Miles remembers one year that was particularly hard, "We couldn't find anything, no deer, no turkeys—nothing. My dad was chief then, and we knew we had to have something to present to the governor; so we went to a turkey farm, bought a live turkey, brought it back to the reservation and killed it. That way we were able to fulfill the terms of the treaty—after all it was killed on the reservation."[9] As far as anyone knows, they have not missed a payment in 342 years.[17]
History
Based on
The Pamunkey are part of the larger
European contact
Initial contact with Europeans was around 1570. "And from [1570] on at ever briefer intervals until the first permanent English colony was established at Jamestown in 1607, the Powhatan Confederacy was visited by white men: Spanish, French, and English." (Barbour, 5). Scholars estimate that when the English arrived in 1607, this paramount chiefdom numbered about 14,000–21,000 people.[6]
Colonists of the first successful English settlement, based at Jamestown, had a complicated relationship with Virginia's Native Americans. In the winter of 1607,
Gradual English colonization
The story of Pocahontas (Matoaka) tells a piece of Pamunkey history, but from an English colonial perspective. Study of primary documents from the time of English arrival shows that initial contact was characterized by mutual cultural misunderstanding. Colonists portrayed the Virginia tribes by contrasts. They had respect for Powhatan, but characterized other Native Americans by terms such as "naked devils". Their fear and appreciation of Native Americans was coupled with distrust and unease. George Percy's account of the early years expresses such duality: "It pleased God, after a while, to send those people which were our mortal enemies to relieve us with victuals, as bread, corn fish, and flesh in great plenty, which was the setting up of our feeble men, otherwise we had all perished".[22]
The colonists generally mistrusted most Indian tribes, but they noted the Pamunkey did not steal. "Their custom is to take anything they can seize off; only the people of Pamunkey we have not found stealing, but what others can steal, their king receiveth."[23]
The Powhatan could not understand the violent tactics employed by the colonists. As one noted, "What it will avail you to take by force you may quickly have by love, or to destroy them that provide you food? What can you get by war, when we can hide our provisions and fly to the woods? Whereby you must famish by wronging us your friends. And why are you thus jealous of our loves seeing us unarmed, and both do, and are willing still to feed you, with that you cannot get but by our labors?"[24] Smith included this translation of Powhatan's questions in his writings.
Powhatan's maternal half-brother and ultimate successor, Opechancanough, launched attacks in 1622 and 1644 as a result of English colonists encroaching on Powhatan lands. The first, known as the
In 1646, the first treaty was signed between the Opechancanough's successor, Necotowance, and the English. The treaty set up boundaries between lands set aside for the Virginia tribes and those that were now considered property of English colonists, reservations lands, and yearly tribute payment of fish and game (made to the English). These boundaries could not be crossed unless it was on official business and badges had to be worn to illustrate the point.[6] During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, settlers continued to expand the colony of Virginia, further displacing the Pamunkey and making it impossible for them to sustain traditional practices.
Bacon's Rebellion
Pamunkey Native Americans today
Today, about 430 tribal members remain, some of whom live on their 1,200-acre (4.9 km2) reservation. Others are spread out across the United States.[17]
The Pamunkey have been able to survive because of their ability to adapt as a tribe. Withstanding pressure to give up their reservation lands has helped them maintain traditional ways.[8] Men use some of the old methods for fishing, part of the tribe's traditional heritage. They also continue to hunt and trap on reservation lands.[9]
In 1998, the tribe built a
Pottery
The Pamunkey tradition of pottery making dates back to before the English settled Jamestown. They have been using clay from the banks of the Pamunkey River since prehistoric times. Many continue to use the traditional method. To do so, they let the clay dry, then break it into smaller pieces. These pieces are soaked in water until reaching the consistency of cream. The clay is strained to remove rocks or debris. The water is drained and pressed out until the clay is like dough. It is then ready to be made into pots. Traditional pottery by Pamunkey ancestors of the
In 1932, during the Great Depression, the state of Virginia helped the Pamunkey develop their pottery as a source of income. The state set up a program for a pottery school and provided a teacher. The state furnished materials for the building, but the tribe built it themselves. Tribal members learned methods to increase the speed of manufacture. They incorporated firing pottery in a kiln and using glazes into their techniques. They learned to use squeeze molds to produce copies of pots quickly. Kiln firing produced finished pottery of more uniform brown tones than the shades of gray from traditional pottery techniques.[9]
Pamunkey pottery-makers learned how to paint and glaze pots. The teacher taught them designs and
Today, Pamunkey use both traditional and newer techniques to create their pieces. To differentiate, pots made the traditional way are called 'blackware'. The Pamunkey Indian Museum has a variety of vessels, as well as videos and exhibits, that explain the differences in construction methods, types of temper, and decorating techniques.[9]
The Pamunkey ensured their Pamunkey Indian Tribe Museum, built in 1979, resembled the traditional yehakin. Located on the reservation, the museum provides visitors with insight into the tribe's long history and culture. Included are artifacts from more than 10,000 years of indigenous settlement, replicas of prehistoric materials, and stories. The Smithsonian Institution recently selected the Pamunkey as one of 24 tribes to be featured in the National Museum of the American Indian in Washington, D.C.
Federal recognition
The Commonwealth of Virginia has always recognized the Pamunkey tribe, with formal relations dating back to the treaties of 1646 and 1677.
During the process of obtaining federal recognition controversy around the tribe's racist legacy came to light as the tribe disenfranchised and outlawed their members from intermarrying with Black families such as the Dungey's/Dungee families during their the 1861 "Black laws". Therefore, using the 1900 and 1910 censuses as their only base rolls has been considered problematic by many because it excludes those Pamunkey Indians who were disenfranchised and forced to move from the Reservation before those censuses were taken. Despite the Black Laws supposedly being repealed in 2014, the tribe has yet to change their enrollment criteria.[31] Due to this discrimination after the "Black laws" many mixed Black Pamunkey's moved to New Kent (these families were inaccurately referred to as "fringe Pamunkey" by Helen Rountree) and Cumberland Counties, Virginia, and despite the disenfranchisement they still maintained their Pamunkey identity. For example, during the late 1800s John Howell as trying to build an Indian only school for Pamunkeys living in New Kent. This was even referenced in OFA's preliminary decision for Pamunkey federal acknowledgement. It's also interesting to note that John R Dungee taught at the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute.
References
- ^ "Writer's Guide" Archived February 24, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Virginia Council on Indians, Commonwealth of Virginia, 2009
- ^ Woodrow, John (2012-12-14). "A renowned Virginia Indian tribe finally wins federal recognition". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2015-10-24.
- ^ "Governor – Newsroom". Governor.virginia.gov. 2015-07-02. Retrieved 2015-10-24.
- ^ Federal Register; Vol. 81, No. 86; Wednesday, May 4, 2016; Notices, p. 26827: "The addition to the list of Indian entities results from the January 28, 2016, Interior Board of Indian Appeals dismissal of a request for reconsideration in docket number 16–003, In Re Federal Acknowledgment of the Pamunkey Indian Tribe."
- ^ "Bill passes to give 6 Va. Native American tribes federal recognition". WTVR. 12 January 2018.
- ^ a b c d e Rountree, Helen C. and E. Randolph Turner III. Before and After Jamestown: Virginia's Powhatans and Their Predecessors. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002.
- ^ a b c Pollard, John Garland. The Pamunkey Indians of Virginia, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office
- ^ a b c d Egloff, Keith and Deborah Woodward. First People: The Early Indians of Virginia. Charlottesville: The University Press of Virginia, 1992.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Waugaman, Sandra F. and Danielle-Moretti-Langholtz, Ph.D. We're Still Here: Contemporary Virginia Indians Tell Their Stories. Richmond: Palari Publishing, 2006 (revised edition).
- ^ a b c d e f g Wood, Karenne (editor). The Virginia Indian Heritage Trail, 2007.
- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-12-31. Retrieved 2018-12-31.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - S2CID 143441104.
- ^ A Vocabulary of Powhatan, compiled by Captain John Smith, with two word-lists of Pamumkey and Nansemond from other sources. Evolution Publishing, 1997.
- ^ Benita Howell, Richard Levy & Alvin Luckenbach, 'What Is Dalrymple's Pamunkey?', International Journal of American Linguistics, vol. 45, no. 1 (Jan. 1979), pp. 78–80
- ^ a b Rountree, Helen C. The Powhatan Indians of Virginia: Their Traditional Culture. University of Oklahoma Press: Norman, 1989.
- ^ Alfred A. Cave, Lethal Encounters: Englishmen and Indians in Colonial America (2011) University of Nebraska Press at pp. 151,165
- ^ a b c Joanne Kimberlain, "We're Still Here," Virginian-Pilot. June 7–9, 2009: Print.
- ^ Flaherty oag.state.va.us [dead link]
- ^ Hodge, Frederick Webb (1910). Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico, Part 2, p. 198. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
- Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. Retrieved September 18, 2014.
- ^ Rountree, Helen C. Pocahontas, Powhatan, Opechancanough: Three Indian Lives Changed by Jamestown, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2005.
- ^ Southern 2004, p. 35
- ^ Southern 2004, p. 83
- ^ Southern 2004, p. 97
- ^ Swanton 2003, p. 70
- ^ Washington Post. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
- ^ Sky News US Team (2 July 2015). "Pocahontas' Tribe Wins Federal Recognition". Sky News. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
- ^ Vergakis, Brock (2 July 2015). "Virginia's Pamunkey Indian Tribe Granted Federal Recognition". Associated Press. Archived from the original on July 4, 2015. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
- Washington Post. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
- ^ Review, Tidewater. "Pamunkey challenge denied, tribe now federally recognized". Retrieved 22 July 2016.
- ^ Gwen Moore letter indianz.com March 9, 2020
Further reading
- Barbour, Phillip. Pocahontas and Her World. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1969.
- Hatfield, April Lee. Atlantic Virginia: Intercolonial Relations in the Seventeenth Century, Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004.
- Southern, Ed (2004), The Jamestown adventure: accounts of the Virginia colony, 1605–1614, John F. Blair, Publisher, ISBN 978-0-89587-302-6
- Swanton, John Reed (2003), The Indian tribes of North America, Genealogical Publishing Com, ISBN 978-0-8063-1730-4