Rosika Schwimmer
Rosika Schwimmer | |
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Schwimmer Rózsa | |
Pacifist | |
Title |
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Relatives | Leopold Katscher (maternal uncle) |
Rosika Schwimmer (
Schwimmer was born into a Jewish family in Budapest in 1877, she graduated from public school in 1891. An accomplished linguist, she spoke or read eight languages. In her early career, she had difficulty finding a job that paid a living wage and was sensitized by that experience to women's employment issues. Gathering data to provide statistics on working women, Schwimmer came into contact with members of the international women's suffrage movement and by 1904 became involved in the struggle. She co-founded the first national women's labor umbrella organization in Hungary and the Hungarian Feminist Association. She also assisted in organizing the Seventh Conference of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, hosted in Budapest in 1913.
The following year, Schwimmer was hired as a press secretary of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance in London. When World War I broke out, she was branded an enemy alien and left Europe for the United States, where she spoke on suffrage and pacifism. She was one of the founders of the Woman's Peace Party and the organization which would become the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom.
In 1915, after attending the International Congress of Women in The Hague, she worked with other feminists to persuade foreign ministers in Europe to support the creation of a body to peacefully mediate world affairs and was instrumental in convincing Henry Ford to charter the Peace Ship. From 1916 to 1918, Schwimmer lived in Europe working on various plans to end the war. With the establishment of the First Hungarian Republic, she was appointed as one of the world's first female ambassadors (from Hungary to Switzerland) in 1918. When the Republic was toppled by a coup d'état, she fled to the United States, renouncing her Hungarian citizenship.
Applying for naturalization, Schwimmer was rejected on the basis of her pacifism. The case was overturned on appeal in 1928, and the following year the appeal was overturned by the
In 1935, Schwimmer and
Early years
Rózsa Schwimmer was born in
Career
Early career and politicization
Schwimmer first worked as a
Through her correspondence to collect data, Schwimmer came in contact with influential figures of the international women's movement, like
Upon her return home,[9] Schwimmer co-founded the Hungarian Feminist Association (Hungarian: Feministák Egyesülete (FE)) with Vilma Glücklich.[10] They were joined by other prominent feminists like Eugénia Miskolczy Meller.[14] The radical organization set out to work for gender equality in all aspects of women's lives,[11] including education, employment, access to birth control,[9] reform of laws governing married women's socioeconomic status,[15] enfranchisement, and women's inheritance rights,[16] as well as curtailing child labor.[15] In 1907, to counteract the unfavorable press they received from the media at large, the Feminist Association founded the journal A Nő és a Társadalom (Women and Society), with Schwimmer as editor-in-chief. It published articles on careers, child care, domestic work, labor, legal issues and sexual abuse. She gained national prominence that year for a dispute with law professor and MP, Károly Kmety , who introduced a measure to implement stricter limits for women's admission to higher education. Kmety dubbed educated women as "female monsters", who aimed to destroy families. Schwimmer's rebuttal to his claims disclosed the fact that Kmety's wife had graduated from a normal school. Though she had won the argument, criticism of the Feminist Association continued.[16]
In 1911, Schwimmer married a journalist, Pál Bédy and took his name (Bédy-Schwimmer) but he either died in 1912, or they divorced in 1913.[Notes 1] After their breakup she removed his surname and returned to using Schwimmer,[8][15] keeping the fact that she had ever been married a life-long secret.[15][19]
In 1913, she helped the Feminist Association organize the
By this time, Schwimmer had traveled widely throughout Europe on lecture tours. An extrovert and experienced journalist, she knew how to appeal to her audience.
Internationalism
Schwimmer's international contacts resulted in an invitation for her to become the press secretary of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, leading her to move to London for the job.[7] She also worked as a correspondent of various European newspapers.[27] When World War I broke out, she could not return home and began to agitate for the end of hostilities.[7] She resigned from her post with the Suffrage Alliance, fearing her nationality would cause problems for the women's movement and her own ability to continue pressing for peace.[28][29] Branded as an enemy alien in 1914, she left Britain[30] to tour the United States and press for an end to the war.[7] Schwimmer spoke in 22 different states, urging women to press for diplomatic mediation of the European conflict.[31] She met with President Woodrow Wilson and Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan, but was unsuccessful in her attempts to organize a neutral conference to bring both sides of the conflict together.[7]
Schwimmer took part in the formation of the Woman's Peace Party in 1915, becoming a secretary of the organization.[7] Because of the war, the biennial conference of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance was postponed. Chrystal Macmillan proposed that suffragists should hold a conference to discuss international peace principles and Aletta Jacobs suggested that the Netherlands, as a neutral nation, could host the event.[32] Schwimmer was asked to secure Catt as the chair of the conference but, unable to convince her, she approached social reformer, Jane Addams, who agreed to serve as conference chair.[33] At the International Congress of Women, held in The Hague from 28 April, Schwimmer and Julia Grace Wales, a Canadian academic, proposed a "continuous conference of neutrals" between governments be formed to mediate conflicts and restore peace.[34] During the conference the International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace was established, which would become the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF).[35] Schwimmer was selected as one of its board members.[8]
After the conference closed on 3 May 1915, Schwimmer, Addams and Jacobs, along with Macmillan, Emily Greene Balch, Mien van Wulfften Palthe[36][37] and others, formed two delegations of women who met with European heads of state over the next several months. The women secured agreement from reluctant foreign ministers, who overall felt that a mediating body would be ineffective. In spite of their hesitancy, the ministers agreed to participate, or at least not impede, the creation of a neutral assembly, if other nations agreed and if U.S. President Woodrow Wilson would initiate its establishment. In the midst of the war, Wilson refused.[38][39] By the time Schwimmer returned from Europe in the fall, sentiment had changed in the United States and many feminists believed that pacifism would hurt the cause for suffrage.[40] Disagreeing with them, Schwimmer did not think the struggle for women's rights should focus solely on attaining suffrage. She strongly believed broader changes were needed and women's voices were crucial for ending violence against humanity.[41] She also felt that neither Catt nor Addams worked hard enough to secure the broad support needed for peace work from reform-minded women.[42] Determined to continue pressing for a mediation conference, she decided that if politicians and feminists would not act, it would fall on individuals to work to end the war.[43]
According to
Statelessness
Schwimmer renounced her Hungarian citizenship
Catt and Addams both drew criticism from anti-radical groups and because of her link to them, Schwimmer, and those who associated with her, became targets for those seeking to attack leaders in the feminist movement.[71] Schwimmer was accused of having prevented the United States from preparing sooner for the war, [68] was called a spy, and her peace initiatives were twisted from being humanitarian missions into strategic plots to aid the Germans and their allies. Other distortions accused her of having been a diplomat in Kun's brief communist regime and a member of an international Jewish conspiracy.[72] To prevent the attacks leveled at Schwimmer from harming the campaign for suffrage, Catt distanced herself, causing her pain and a feeling of abandonment.[73] The Jewish community which had welcomed her before the war largely blamed Schwimmer for Ford's anti-Semitic campaign published between 1920 and 1922 in The Dearborn Independent, though Ford "never indicated that Schwimmer played any such role".[74]
In 1924, Schwimmer applied for naturalization as a U.S. citizen.[8] When she completed the questionnaire, she left both the question about whether she had registered for the draft and whether she would take up arms in defense of the country blank, assuming they did not apply to women. After review, her file was returned to the Chicago office with a directive for Schwimmer to answer if she would bear arms. Against the advice of Fred Schlotfeldt, the District Director of Naturalization, Schwimmer, believing that as no woman was compelled to fight in any country honesty was required, answered that she would not personally take up arms.[75] Two years later, her second interview was called and she explained in detail that defending the country did not necessarily require her physical action, but instead could be a verbal or written defense of principles.[76] She was also questioned about her atheism, her views of nationalism, and her commitment to pacifism. Schwimmer responded that faith was a personal choice and in line with the idea of separation of church and state. She also stated that nationalism was a choice, that she had given up her Hungarian citizenship to pursue U.S. naturalization, and she reiterated that she would not compromise her pacifism.[25]
After the interview, Schlotfeldt advised the
Q [Carpenter]. If you were called to the service, and the kind of work that women usually can perform better than the men can—say as a nurse or as someone to give cheer to the soldiers—and you were at some place in a war, which I hope will never come, and you saw someone coming in the headquarters or the barracks, wherever it was, with a pistol in his hand to shoot the back of an officer of our country, and you had a pistol handy by, would you kill him?
- A [Schwimmer]. No I would not.
— Flowers & Lahutsky 1990, p. 348
Her application was denied solely on the basis that Schwimmer refused to take up arms in defense of the country.[8][78] On the advice of her attorneys and Judge Carpenter, she immediately appealed the decision.[78] Notoriety and negative publicity made it difficult for her to earn a living or support her mother and sister, who lived with her.[79] She spent most of her remaining life fighting slander against her.[80][81] After Fred Marvin, a Republican and anti-radical who was editor of the New York Daily Commercial, accused her of being a German spy and a Bolshevik agent, she sued and received $17,000 in damages[82][83] in July 1928.[84] The following day, her case in the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit on her denial of citizenship was unanimously overturned,[84][78] concluding that "women are considered incapable of bearing arms" and thus could not be forced under the law to do so.[85]
Later life
Having been denied citizenship, Schwimmer became
Also in 1937, Schwimmer formed the Campaign for World Government with Lloyd,[3] the first World Federalist organization of the 20th century.[99] The purpose of the organization was to establish world governance with a constitution, elected representation, a supranational legal system to resolve conflicts between nations, and an International Criminal Court to address human rights issues.[4][5][6] Schwimmer was one of the pioneers who backed creation of the International Court of Justice[16] as a means to provide equal participation and protection for all people regardless of ethnicity, race, or gender.[4] Between 1938 and 1945, Schwimmer campaigned to aid European colleagues, such as Helene Stöcker, escape from Nazi Germany.[3] In 1946, United States v. Schwimmer was overturned in Girouard v. United States, which determined that the Supreme Court had used an incorrect rule of law in Schwimmer, as well as in the cases United States v. Macintosh, 283 U.S. 605 (1931) and United States v. Bland, 283 U.S. 636 (1931).[100] In 1948 she was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize but had little chance of obtaining it, in spite of support from backers in Britain, France, Hungary, Italy, Sweden, and the United States.[16][68][101] No prize was given that year, the Nobel Committee concluding that "no one living deserved it", an allusion widely considered to be referring to the death of the Mahatma Gandhi.[8]
Death and legacy
Rosika Schwimmer died of
Schwimmer's story illustrates the profound changes that occurred in the United States in the interwar period. Although she was never granted American citizenship, her life paralleled shifts in American society and values. Upon her arrival in the United States there was optimism that World War I could end quickly. When she returned in 1921, her pacifism was seen as a sign of disloyalty. A rising conservatism affected feminist groups and transformed them.[109]
Although the Peace Ship mission was largely seen as a failure, it changed the war press coverage in Europe, which to that point had been highly censored. The conference that was established in Stockholm in February 1916 served as a clearinghouse for discussing the war and how to end it. It also helped neutral nations avoid bowing to the pressure to enter the war.[110] Her citizenship case became the basis for a lengthy campaign to change the naturalization laws to recognize that philosophical or religious belief were inadequate reasons for denial of citizenship.[111] In 1952, the law was finally changed to allow conscientious objectors to take an oath that they agree to serve in a non-combatant capacity.[112]
See also
Selected works
- Schwimmer, Rosika (1905). Ehe-Ideale und Ideal-Ehen: Aeusserungen moderner Frauen [Marriage Ideals and Ideal Marriages: Expressions of Modern Women] (in German). Berlin: Continent. OCLC 246799896.
- B.-Schwimmer, Rózsa (1907). A magyar nőmozgalom régi dokumentumai [Old Documents of the Hungarian Women's Movement] (PDF) (in Hungarian). Budapest.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Schwimmer, Rosika (1907). Zentralhaushaltung [Central Housekeeping] (in German). Leipzig: Felix Dietrich. OCLC 889838107.
- Schwimmer, Rosika (1908). Ohne Frauen kein allgemeines Wahlrecht [Without Women No Universal Suffrage] (in German). Berlin: Druck von W. & S. Loewenthal. ASP: Women and Social Movements(subscription required)
- Schwimmer, Rosika (1909). Staatlicher Kinderschutz in Ungarn [State Child Protection in Hungary] (in German). Leipzig: Felix Dietrich. OCLC 253372884.
- Schwimmer, Rosika; Pogány, Willy (illustrator) (1928). Tisza Tales (1st ed.). Garden City, New York: OCLC 2791128.
- Schwimmer, Rosika (1941). Union Now for Peace Or War?: The Danger in the Plan of Clarence Streit (3rd printing ed.). Chicago, Illinois: Campaign for World Government. OCLC 68427548.
- Lloyd, Lola Maverick; Schwimmer, Rosika (1942). Chaos, War, or a New World Order: What We Must Do to Establish the All-inclusive, Non-military, Democratic Federation of Nations (2nd revision, 3rd printing ed.). Chicago, Illinois: Campaign for World Government. ASP: Women and Social Movements(subscription required)
Notes
- ^ There is evidence to support that even though numerous sources confirm the dates of her marriage and dissolution, it may be incorrect. Some of her Hungarian writing indicates B.-Schwimmer from as early as 1907.[17] In the 1940 census, Schwimmer clearly indicates she is divorced, rather than widowed.[18]
References
Citations
- ^ a b Zimmermann 2006, p. 484.
- ^ Papp & Zimmermann 2006, p. 332.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Cohen 2010.
- ^ a b c Threlkeld 2018, p. 475.
- ^ a b Cortright 2008, p. 116.
- ^ a b Glasius 2006, pp. 8, 26–27.
- ^ a b c d e f g Wenger 2009.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Ruttum 2008, p. v.
- ^ a b c d e f Hannam, Auchterlonie & Holden 2000, p. 262.
- ^ a b c d e f g Frojimovics 2010.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Zimmermann 1996.
- ^ a b Wenger 1990, p. 68.
- ^ Wenger 1990, p. 69.
- ^ Papp & Zimmermann 2006, pp. 331–335.
- ^ a b c d e f Wenger 1990, p. 66.
- ^ a b c d e f g Nyáry 2017.
- ^ B.-Schwimmer 1907, p. 1.
- ^ a b U. S. Census 1940, p. 5A.
- ^ a b c d Wiltsher 1985, p. 9.
- ^ Harper 1922, p. 847.
- ^ Harper 1922, pp. 849–850.
- ^ Wiltsher 1985, p. 11.
- ^ Harper 1922, p. 856.
- ^ Wiltsher 1985, p. 8.
- ^ a b Flowers & Lahutsky 1990, p. 346.
- ^ Wenger 1990, p. 67.
- ^ von Leitner 1998, p. 99.
- ^ Hannam, Auchterlonie & Holden 2000, p. 263.
- ^ Wiltsher 1985, pp. 26–27.
- ^ Wiltsher 1985, pp. 30–31.
- ^ Wiltsher 1985, p. 46.
- ^ Wiltsher 1985, p. 61.
- ^ Wiltsher 1985, p. 87.
- ^ Wiltsher 1985, p. 94.
- ^ Jacobs 1996, p. 94.
- ^ de Wilde 2018.
- ^ Caravantes 2004, p. 102.
- ^ Caravantes 2004, pp. 101–103.
- ^ Wiltsher 1985, pp. 110–125.
- ^ Wiltsher 1985, p. 123.
- ^ Wenger 1990, p. 70.
- ^ Wenger 1990, p. 71.
- ^ Wiltsher 1985, p. 157.
- ^ Wiltsher 1985, pp. 157–158.
- ^ a b The Tampa Tribune 1915, p. 1.
- ^ a b Wiltsher 1985, pp. 160–161.
- ^ Wenger 1990, p. 75.
- ^ Wiltsher 1985, p. 162.
- ^ Wiltsher 1985, p. 163.
- ^ The Modern View 1916, p. 3.
- ^ Marshall 1916, p. 5.
- ^ The Grand Forks Herald 1916, p. 15.
- ^ Israel 2015.
- ^ Wenger 1990, p. 76.
- ^ Wenger 1990, pp. 73–74.
- ^ "Mme. Schwimmer Awarded $17,000 in Libel Suit", The Jewish Tribune, July 6, 1928
- ^ Klotts 1937, p. 9.
- ^ a b c d e Wenger 1990, p. 77.
- ^ Glant 2002, p. 46.
- ^ Pastor 1974, pp. 273–282.
- ^ Acsády 2008, p. 242.
- ^ Wiltsher 1985, p. 208.
- ^ a b Patai 2015, p. 468.
- ^ Szegedy-Maszak 2013, p. 49.
- ^ Tresolini 1963, p. 68.
- ^ Immigration and Naturalization Service 1927, p. 3254.
- ^ The Chicago Tribune 1921, p. 1.
- ^ a b c Wiltsher 1985, p. 216.
- ^ Nielsen 2001, p. 15.
- ^ Nielsen 2001, pp. 43, 79.
- ^ Wenger 1990, p. 78.
- ^ Wenger 1990, pp. 78–79.
- ^ Wenger 1990, p. 80.
- ^ Wenger 1990, p. 82.
- ^ Flowers & Lahutsky 1990, p. 344.
- ^ Flowers & Lahutsky 1990, p. 345.
- ^ Flowers & Lahutsky 1990, p. 347.
- ^ a b c Flowers & Lahutsky 1990, p. 348.
- ^ Wenger 1990, p. 84.
- ^ Nielsen 2001, p. 137.
- ^ Wenger 1990, p. 85.
- ^ Nielsen 2001, p. 79.
- ^ Snodgrass 2015, p. 307.
- ^ a b The Pittsburgh Press 1928, p. 2.
- ^ Flowers & Lahutsky 1990, p. 349.
- ^ Flowers & Lahutsky 1990, pp. 350, 352.
- ^ Flowers & Lahutsky 1990, pp. 351–352.
- ^ Flowers & Lahutsky 1990, pp. 353–354.
- ^ Flowers & Lahutsky 1990, p. 357.
- ^ The Miami Daily News 1948, p. 10.
- ^ Flowers & Lahutsky 1990, p. 358.
- ^ Tresolini 1963, p. 73.
- ^ Wiltsher 1985, p. 212.
- ^ Baratta 2004, p. 160.
- ^ Wenger 1990, p. 90.
- ^ The Times Union 1932, p. 4A.
- ^ Relph 1979, pp. 597–598.
- ^ Klotts 1937, p. 1.
- ^ Ruttum 2005, p. vi.
- ^ Flowers & Lahutsky 1990, pp. 361–362.
- ^ Flowers & Lahutsky 1990, p. 366.
- ^ Municipal Deaths 1948.
- ^ Glant 2002, p. 43.
- ^ Threlkeld 2018, pp. 475–476.
- ^ Relph 1979, p. 602.
- ^ Bisoski 2011.
- ^ California Digital Library 1937.
- ^ Yoder & Fulvio 2010.
- ^ Wenger 1990, pp. 91–92.
- ^ Wiltsher 1985, pp. 161–162.
- ^ Flowers & Lahutsky 1990, pp. 358–359, 363.
- ^ Flowers & Lahutsky 1990, p. 362.
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- Cohen, Laurie R. (2010). "Schwimmer, Rosika". In Young, Nigel J. (ed.). The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace. Oxford, England: ISBN 978-0-195-33468-5. – via Oxford University Press's Reference Online (subscription required)
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{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: postscript (link) - Flowers, Ronald B.; Lahutsky, Nadia M. (Spring 1990). "The Naturalization of Rosika Schwimmer". JSTOR 23916971.
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- ISBN 978-0-8142-0882-3.
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- "Climate of Befuddled Innocence". Newspapers.com.
- "Ford on Way Home; Will Leave Party to Conclude the Work". Newspapers.com.
- "Ford Peace Angel Found Destitute". Newspapers.com.
- "Has Friends in Every Country". Newspapers.com.
- "'Key Men' Lose Suit". Newspapers.com.
- "Naturalization petitions for U.S. District & Circuit Courts, Northern District of Illinois and Immigration and Naturalization Service District 9, 1840–1950: Schwimmer". FamilySearch. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration. 29 October 1927. p. 3254. NARA Microfilm Series M1285, Roll 164. Retrieved 28 October 2019.
- "New York City Municipal Deaths, 1795–1949: Schwimmer". FamilySearch. Manhattan, New York: New York Municipal Archives. 4 August 1948. FHL microfilm 2134508. Retrieved 29 October 2019.
- "Preliminary Inventory to the Rosika Schwimmer Papers, 1914–1937" (PDF). Online Archive of California. Stanford, California: California Digital Library. 1937. Archived from the original(PDF) on 22 October 2019. Retrieved 29 October 2019.
- "Rosika Schwimmer Returns". The Modern View. St. Louis, Missouri. 11 August 1916. p. 3. Retrieved 27 October 2019 – via Newspapers.com.
- "Suffrage Dies in Europe, Mme. Schwimmer Says". Newspapers.com.
External links
- Articles by Rosika Schwimmer in A nő és a társadalom and A Nő, Magyar Társadalomtudományok Digitális Archívuma
- Schwimmer-Lloyd collection at the Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College Special Collections