User:Lycurgus/respublicae
Public administration is the implementation of
Public administration is "centrally concerned with the organization of government policies and programmes as well as the behavior of officials (usually non-elected) formally responsible for their conduct"
In the US, civil servants and academics such as
Definitions
In 1947 Paul H. Appleby defined public administration as "public leadership of public affairs directly responsible for executive action". In a democracy, it has to do with such leadership and executive action in terms that respect and contribute to the dignity, the worth, and the potentials of the citizen.[10] One year later, Gordon Clapp, then Chairman of the Tennessee Valley Authority defined public administration "as a public instrument whereby democratic society may be more completely realized." This implies that it must "relate itself to concepts of justice, liberty, and fuller economic opportunity for human beings" and is thus "concerned with "people, with ideas, and with things."[11] According to James D. Carroll & Alfred M. Zuck, the publication by "Woodrow Wilson of his essay, " The Study of Administration" in 1887 is generally regarded as the beginning of public administration as a specific field of study".[12]
Drawing on the democracy theme and discarding the link to the executive branch, Patricia M. Shields asserts that public administration "deals with the stewardship and implementation of the products of a living democracy."[13] The key term "product" refers to "those items that are constructed or produced" such as prisons, roads, laws, schools, and security. "As implementors, public managers engage these products." They participate in the doing and making of the "living" democracy. A living democracy is "an environment that is changing, organic", imperfect, inconsistent and teaming with values. "Stewardship is emphasized because public administration is concerned "with accountability and effective use of scarce resources and ultimately making the connection between the doing, the making and democratic values."[14]
More recently scholars claim that "public administration has no generally accepted definition", because the "scope of the subject is so great and so debatable that it is easier to explain than define".[15] Public administration is a field of study (i.e., a discipline) and an occupation. There is much disagreement about whether the study of public administration can properly be called a discipline, largely because of the debate over whether public administration is a subfield of political science or a subfield of administrative science", the latter an outgrowth of its roots in policy analysis and evaluation research.[15][16] Scholar Donald Kettl is among those who view public administration "as a subfield within political science".[17]
The North American Industry Classification System definition of the Public Administration (NAICS 91) sector states that public administration "... comprises establishments primarily engaged in activities of a governmental nature, that is, the enactment and judicial interpretation of laws and their pursuant regulations, and the administration of programs based on them". This includes "Legislative activities, taxation, national defense, public order and safety, immigration services, foreign affairs and international assistance, and the administration of government programs are activities that are purely governmental in nature".[18]
From the academic perspective, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) in the United States defines the study of public administration as "A program that prepares individuals to serve as managers in the executive arm of local, state, and federal government and that focuses on the systematic study of executive organization and management. Includes instruction in the roles, development, and principles of public administration; the management of public policy; executive-legislative relations; public budgetary processes and financial management; administrative law; public personnel management; professional ethics; and research methods."[19]
History
Antiquity to the 19th century
Dating back to Antiquity, Pharaohs, kings and emperors have required pages, treasurers, and tax collectors to administer the practical business of government. Prior to the 19th century, staffing of most public administrations was rife with nepotism, favoritism, and political patronage, which was often referred to as a "spoils system". Public administrators have been the "eyes and ears" of rulers until relatively recently. In medieval times, the abilities to read and write, add and subtract were as dominated by the educated elite as public employment. Consequently, the need for expert civil servants whose ability to read and write formed the basis for developing expertise in such necessary activities as legal record-keeping, paying and feeding armies and levying taxes. As the European Imperialist age progressed and the militarily powers extended their hold over other continents and people, the need for a sophisticated public administration grew.
The eighteenth-century noble,
Lorenz von Stein, an 1855 German professor from Vienna, is considered the founder of the science of public administration in many parts of the world. In the time of Von Stein, public administration was considered a form of administrative law, but Von Stein believed this concept too restrictive. Von Stein taught that public administration relies on many prestablished disciplines such as sociology, political science, administrative law and public finance. He called public administration an integrating science, and stated that public administrators should be concerned with both theory and practice. He argued that public administration is a science because knowledge is generated and evaluated according to the scientific method.
Modern American public administration is an extension of democratic governance, justified by classic and liberal philosophers of the western world ranging from Aristotle to John Locke[20] to Thomas Jefferson.[21][22]
In the
- Separation of politics and administration
- Comparative analysis of political and private organizations
- Improving efficiency with business-like practices and attitudes toward daily operations
- Improving the effectiveness of public service through management and by training civil servants, merit-based assessment
The separation of politics and administration has been the subject of lasting debate. The different perspectives regarding this dichotomy contribute to differentiating characteristics of the suggested generations of public administration.
By the 1920s, scholars of public administration had responded to Wilson's solicitation and thus textbooks in this field were introduced. A few distinguished scholars of that period were, Luther Gulick, Lyndall Urwick, Henri Fayol, Frederick Taylor, and others. Frederick Taylor (1856-1915), another prominent scholar in the field of administration and management also published a book entitled 'The Principles of Scientific Management' (1911). He believed that scientific analysis would lead to the discovery of the 'one best way' to do things and /or carrying out an operation. This, according to him could help save cost and time. Taylor's technique was later introduced to private industrialists, and later into the various government organizations (Jeong, 2007).[23]
Taylor's approach is often referred to as Taylor's Principles, and/or Taylorism. Taylor's scientific management consisted of main four principles (Frederick W. Taylor, 1911):
- Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks.
- Scientifically select, train, and develop each employee rather than passively leaving them to train themselves.
- Provide 'Detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in the performance of that worker's discrete task' (Montgomery 1997: 250).
- Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks.
Taylor had very precise ideas about how to introduce his system (approach): 'It is only through enforced standardization of methods, enforced adoption of the best implements and working conditions, and enforced cooperation that this faster work can be assured. And the duty of enforcing the adoption of standards and enforcing this cooperation rests with management alone.'[24]
The American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) the leading professional group for public administration was founded in 1939. ASPA sponsors the journal Public Administration Review, which was founded in 1940.[25]
US in the 1940s
The separation of politics and administration advocated by Wilson continues to play a significant role in public administration today. However, the dominance of this dichotomy was challenged by second generation scholars, beginning in the 1940s. Luther Gulick's fact-value dichotomy was a key contender for Wilson's proposed politics-administration dichotomy. In place of Wilson's first generation split, Gulick advocated a "seamless web of discretion and interaction".[26]
Luther Gulick and
Gulick developed a comprehensive, generic theory of organization that emphasized the scientific method, efficiency, professionalism, structural reform, and executive control. Gulick summarized the duties of administrators with an acronym; POSDCORB, which stands for planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting. Fayol developed a systematic, 14-point, treatment of private management. Second-generation theorists drew upon private management practices for administrative sciences. A single, generic management theory bleeding the borders between the private and the public sector was thought to be possible. With the general theory, the administrative theory could be focused on governmental organizations.The mid-1940s theorists challenged Wilson and Gulick. The politics-administration dichotomy remained the center of criticism.
1950s to the 1970s
During the 1950s, the United States experienced prolonged prosperity and solidified its place as a world leader. Public Administration experienced a kind of heyday due to the successful war effort and successful post war reconstruction in Western Europe and Japan. Government was popular as was President Eisenhower. In the 1960s and 1970s, government itself came under fire as ineffective, inefficient, and largely a wasted effort. The costly
There was a call by citizens for efficient administration to replace ineffective, wasteful bureaucracy. Public administration would have to distance itself from politics to answer this call and remain effective. Elected officials supported these reforms. The Hoover Commission, chaired by University of Chicago professor Louis Brownlow, to examine reorganization of government. Brownlow subsequently founded the Public Administration Service (PAS) at the university, an organization which has provided consulting services to all levels of government until the 1970s.[citation needed]
Concurrently, after World War II, the whole concept of public administration expanded to include policy-making and analysis, thus the study of 'administrative policy making and analysis' was introduced and enhanced into the government decision-making bodies. Later on, the human factor became a predominant concern and emphasis in the study of Public Administration. This period witnessed the development and inclusion of other social sciences knowledge, predominantly, psychology, anthropology, and sociology, into the study of public administration (Jeong, 2007).[23] Henceforth, the emergence of scholars such as, Fritz Morstein Marx with his book 'The Elements of Public Administration' (1946), Paul H. Appleby 'Policy and Administration' (1952), Frank Marini 'Towards a New Public Administration' (1971), and others that have contributed positively in these endeavors.
1980s–1990s
In the late 1980s, yet another generation of public administration theorists began to displace the last. The new theory, which came to be called
Some modern authors define NPM as a combination of splitting large bureaucracies into smaller, more fragmented agencies, encouraging competition between different public agencies, and encouraging competition between public agencies and private firms and using economic incentives lines (e.g., performance pay for senior executives or user-pay models).[29] NPM treats individuals as "customers" or "clients" (in the private sector sense), rather than as citizens.[30]
Some critics argue that the New Public Management concept of treating people as "customers" rather than "citizens" is an inappropriate borrowing from the private sector model, because businesses see customers as a means to an end (profit), rather than as the proprietors of government (the owners), opposed to merely the customers of a business (the patrons). In New Public Management, people are viewed as economic units not democratic participants which is the hazard of linking a MBA (business administration, economic and employer-based model)too closely with the public administration (governmental, public good) sector. Nevertheless, the model (one of 4 described by Elmore in 1986, including the "generic model") is still widely accepted at all levels of government and in many OECD nations.
In the late 1990s, Janet and Robert Denhardt proposed a new public services model in response to the dominance of NPM.[31] A successor to NPM is digital era governance, focusing on themes of reintegrating government responsibilities, needs-based holism (executing duties in cursive ways), and digitalization (exploiting the transformational capabilities of modern IT and digital storage).One example of this is openforum.com.au, an Australian non-for-profit eDemocracy project which invites politicians, senior public servants, academics, business people and other key stakeholders to engage in high-level policy debate.
Another new public service model is what has been called New Public Governance, an approach which includes a centralization of power; an increased number, role and influence of partisan-political staff; personal-politicization of appointments to the senior public service; and, the assumption that the public service is promiscuously partisan for the government of the day.[32]
In the mid-1980s, the goal of community programs in the US was often represented by terms such as independent living,
Increasingly, public policy academics and practitioners have utilized the theoretical concepts of political economy to explain policy outcomes such as the success or failure of reform efforts and/or the persistence of sub-optimal outcomes.[36]
Approaches
- Public good and common good approaches
- Public management approach
- Public administration approach
- Public contracting and provision approach
- Public choice approach
- Community services administration (US and global)
____________________________________________________________
- Systems approach
- Ecological approach
- Contingency approach
- Behavioural approach
- Participatory/democratic approach
- Competency/functional approach
____________________________________________________________
- Business or market systems approach
- Social sciences research approach
- Statistical and engineering approach
- Feminist or gender studies approach
- Disability public policy approach
- Universal vs person-centred approaches
- Family studies, theories and community development
Core branches
In academia, the field of public administration consists of a number of sub-fields. Scholars have proposed a number of different sets of sub-fields. One of the proposed models uses five "pillars":[9]
- Organizational theory in public administration is the study of the structure of governmental entities and the many particulars inculcated in them.
- Ethics in public administration serves as a normative approach to decision making.
- Policy analysis serves as an empirical approach to decision making.
- Public budgeting is the activity within a government that seeks to allocate scarce resources among unlimited demands.
- Human resource managementis an in-house structure that ensures that public service staffing is done in an unbiased, ethical and values-based manner. The basic functions of the HR system are employee benefits, employee health care, compensation, and many more (e.g., human rights, Americans with Disabilities Act). [The Executives managing the HR Director and other key Departmental personnel is also the subject of Public Administration.]
Public Administration also has responsibility for core content areas in the university sector which have traditionally included: Housing and community development, family studies at health and human services, labor and employment organizations, recreation, tourism and economic development, transportation systems, administrative law for areas such as public utilities, Personnel systems and workforces, non-profit sector and development, new IT technological developments, and the triparte of government (legislative, Executive, judicial).
Decision-making models
Given the array of duties public administrators find themselves performing, the professional administrator might refer to a theoretical framework from which he or she might work. Indeed, many public and private administrative scholars have devised and modified decision-making models.
Niskanen's budget-maximizing
In 1971, Professor
Dunleavy's bureau-shaping
The
Academic field
In the
The goals of the field of public administration are related to the
One minor tradition that the more specific term "
One public administration scholar, Donald Kettl, argues that "...public administration sits in a disciplinary backwater", because "...[f]or the last generation, scholars have sought to save or replace it with fields of study like implementation, public management, and formal bureaucratic theory".[17] Kettl states that "public administration, as a subfield within political science...is struggling to define its role within the discipline".[17] He notes two problems with public administration: it "has seemed methodologically to lag behind" and "the field's theoretical work too often seems not to define it"-indeed, "some of the most interesting recent ideas in public administration have come from outside the field".[17]
Comparative public administration
Comparative public administration is defined as the study of administrative systems in a comparative fashion or the study of public administration in other countries.[38][39] Another definition for "comparative public administration" is the "quest for patterns and regularities in administrative action and behavior".[38] There have been several issues which have hampered the development of comparative public administration, including: the major differences between Western countries and developing countries; the lack of curriculum on this subfield in public administration programs; and the lack of success in developing theoretical models which can be scientifically tested.[40] The Comparative Administration group has defined CPA as, "the of publicadministration applied to diverse cultures and national setting and the body of factual data, by which it can be examined and tested." Accordingly to Jong S. Jun, "CPA has been predominantly cross-cultural and cross-national in orientation." Due to the organization of governments in the US, comparative studies of state governments and practices also are considered central not simply local or national.[41][42]
Master's degrees
Some public administration programs have similarities to business administration programs, in cases where the students from both the MPA and MBA programs take many of the same courses [citation needed]. [In 2014, this similarity is due in part to 7 times federal contracts over the number of federal employees in government.] In some programs, the MPA (or MAPA) is more clearly distinct from the MBA, in that the MPA often emphasizes substantially different ethical and sociological criteria that are traditionally secondary to that of profit for business administrators.
The MPA is related to similar graduate level government studies programs including MA programs in public affairs, public policy, and political science. Differences often include program emphases on policy analysis techniques or other topical focuses such as the study of international affairs as opposed to focuses on constitutional issues such as separation of powers, administrative law, contracting with government, problems of governance and power, and participatory democracy.
A unique mid-career Master's Program (e.g., Maxwell Mid-Career Program at Syracuse University began by Robert Iversen in the 1970s) may be offered to assist existing Public Managers or Community Managers to advance in their knowledge and careers, while continuing full-time employment. Community programs may be site of internships, and continuing education credits which can be used by managers and staff members.
Doctoral degrees
There are two types of doctoral degrees in public administration: the Doctor of Public Administration and the Ph.D. in Public Administration. The Doctor of Public Administration (DPA) is an applied-research doctoral degree in the field of public administration, focusing on practice. The DPA requires a dissertation and significant coursework beyond the Masters level. Upon successful completion of the doctoral requirements, the title of "Doctor" is awarded and the post-nominals of D.P.A. are often added. Some universities use the Ph.D. as their doctoral degree in public administration (e.g., Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada).
Notable scholars
Notable scholars of public administration have come from a range of fields. In the period before public administration existed as its own independent discipline, scholars contributing to the field came from economics, sociology, management, political science, administrative law, and, other related fields. More recently, scholars from public administration and public policy have contributed important studies and theories.
International public administration
There are several organizations that are active. The Commonwealth Association of Public Administration and Management CAPAM is perhaps the most diverse, covering the 54 member states of the Commonwealth from India to Nauru. Its biennial conference brings together ministers of public service, top officials and leading scholars in the field.
The oldest is the International Institute of Administrative Sciences. Based in Brussels, Belgium, the IIAS is a worldwide platform providing a space for exchanges that promote knowledge and practices to improve the organization and operation of Public Administration and to ensure that public agencies will be in a position to better respond to the current and future expectations and needs of society. The IIAS has set up four entities: the International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration (IASIA), the European Group for Public Administration (EGPA), The Latin American Group for Public Administration (LAGPA) and the Asian Group for Public Administration (AGPA).
IASIA is an association of organizations and individuals whose activities and interests focus on public administration and management. The activities of its members include education and training of administrators and managers. It is the only worldwide scholarly association in the field of public management. EGPA, LAGPA and AGPA are the regional sub-entities of the IIAS.
Also the International Committee of the US-based Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA) has developed a number of relationships around the world. They include sub regional and National forums like CLAD, INPAE and NISPAcee, APSA, ASPA.[43]
The Center for Latin American Administration for Development (CLAD), based in Caracas, Venezuela, this regional network of schools of public administration set up by the governments in Latin America is the oldest in the region.[44] The Institute is a founding member and played a central role in organizing the Inter-American Network of Public Administration Education (INPAE). Created in 2000, this regional network of schools is unique in that it is the only organization to be composed of institutions from North and Latin America and the Caribbean working in public administration and policy analysis. It has more than 49 members from top research schools in various countries throughout the hemisphere.[45]
NISPAcee is a network of experts, scholars and practitioners who work in the field of public administration in Central and Eastern Europe, including the Russian Federation and the Caucasus and Central Asia.[46] The US public administration and political science associations like NASPAA, American Political Science Association (APSA)[47] and American Society of Public Administration (ASPA).[48] These organizations have helped to create the fundamental establishment of modern public administration.
Public Management
"Public Management" is an approach to government and non-profit administration that resembles private-sector management in some important ways. In particular, there are management tools appropriate to public and in private domains, tools that maximize
Studying and teaching about public management are widely practiced in
The public manager will deal with critical infrastructure that directly and obviously affects quality of life. Trust in public managers, and the large sums spent at their behest, make them subject to many more conflict of interest and ethics guidelines in most nations.
Organizations
Many entities study public management in particular, in various countries, including:
- In the US, the American Society for Public Administration. Indiana University Bloomington
- In Canada, the Institute of Public Administration of Canada, the Observatoire de l'Administation publique, and various projects of the Federation of Canadian Municipalities and Infrastructure Canada
- In the UK, UK local democracy project and London Health Observatory.
- In the Netherlands, The Hague University of Applied Sciences
- In Australia, the Institute of Public Administration Australia.
- In France, the École nationale d'administration and the IMPGT, Institute of Public Management and Territorial Governance in Aix-en-Provence, Aix-Marseille University.
- In Belgium, the Public Governance Institute, KU Leuven.
- In Germany, the Hertie School of Governance, the Bachelor and Master of Politics & Public Manangement at the Zeppelin University Friedrichshafen, and the Bachelor and Master of Public Policy & Management and the Executive Public Management Master of University of Potsdam.
- In Switzerland, the Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration (IDHEAP).
- In Italy, the Milan, Italy.
- In Cyprus, the Cyprus International Institute of Management or CIIM.
- In Ireland, the Institute of Public Administration, Dublin.
- In South Africa, Regenesys Business School through the Regenesys School of Public Management.
Comparative public management, through government performance auditing, examines the efficiency and effectiveness of two or more governments.
See also
- Administration (government)
- Administrative law
- Budgeting
- Bureaucracy
- Civil society
- Community services administration
- Doctor of Public Administration
- Municipal government
- Politics
- Professional administration
- Public administration theory
- Public management– focusing on the efficiency and effectiveness of a government
- Public policy
- Public policy schools
- Theories of administration
Societies
- International Institute of Administrative Sciences
- American Society for Public Administration
- Brazilian National School of Public Administration[49]
- Chinese Public Administration Society
- Dutch Association for Public Administration
- Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration
- Indian Institute of Public Administration[50]
- Korea Institute of Public Administration
- Philippine Society for Public Administration
- Public Administration Association of Nepal
- Royal Institute of Public Administration
Public Management Academic resources
- International Journal of Public Sector Management, ISSN: 0951-3558, Emerald Group Publishing
- Public Management Review, ISSN: 1471-9045 (electronic) 1471-9037 (paper), Routledge
- Public Works Management & Policy, ISSN: 1552-7549 (electronic) 1087-724X (paper), SAGE Publications
Suggested reading
- Dubois, H.F.W. & Fattore, G. (2009), 'Definitions and typologies in public administration research: the case of decentralization', International Journal of Public Administration, 32(8): 704–727.
- Jeong Chun Hai @Ibrahim, & Nor Fadzlina Nawi. (2007). Principles of Public Administration: An Introduction. Kuala Lumpur: Karisma Publications. ISBN 978-983-195-253-5
- Smith, Kevin B. and Licari, Michael J. Public Administration — Power and Politics in the Fourth Branch of Government, ISBN 1-933220-04-X
- White,Jay D. and Guy B. Adams. Research in public administration: reflections on theory and practice.1994.
- Donald Menzel and Harvey White (eds) 2011. The State of Public Administration: Issues, Challenges and Opportunity. New York: M. E. Sharpe.
Public Management
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Notes and references
- ^ "Random House Unabridged Dictionary". Dictionary.infoplease.com. Retrieved 2014-08-23.
- ^ Handbook of Public Administration. Eds Jack Rabin, W. Bartley Hildreth, and Gerard J. Miller. 1989: Marcel Dekker, NY. p. iii
- ^ Robert and Janet Denhardt. Public Administration: An Action Orientation. 6th Ed. 2009: Thomson Wadsworth, Belmont CA.
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The field of public administration knows many concepts. By focusing on one such concept, this research shows how definitions can be deceptive...
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External links
- Gov Monitor: A public administration, policy and public sector website
- Public Administration Theory Network (PAT-Net) : This is an international network of professionals concerned with the advancement of public administration theory.
- The Global Public Administration Resource : A forum where practitioners, academics and students can discuss topics in public administration.
- United Nations Public Administration Network (UNPAN): A body which aims to establish an Internet-based network that links regional and national institutions devoted to public administration.
- National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration
- International Public Management Network
- International Public Management Association for Human Resources
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