Yamnaya culture

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Yamna culture
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"Yamna culture" redirects here. Not to be confused with the Yamna language of Papua, Indonesia.

Yamnaya culture
Alternative names
  • Pit Grave culture
  • Yamna culture
  • Ochre Grave culture
  • Yamnaya Horizon
Geographical rangePontic–Caspian steppe in Europe
PeriodCopper Age, Bronze Age
Datesc. 3300 – 2600 BCE
Preceded bySamara culture, Khvalynsk culture, Dnieper–Donets culture, Sredny Stog culture, Repin culture, Maykop culture, Cucuteni–Trypillia culture, Cernavodă culture, Usatove culture
Followed by
North: Corded Ware culture [1]

West: Catacomb culture, Vučedol culture

East: Poltavka culture
Defined byVasily Gorodtsov

The Yamnaya culture

romanization: yamnaya) is a Russian adjective that means 'related to pits (yama)', as these people used to bury their dead in tumuli (kurgans
) containing simple pit chambers.

The Yamnaya economy was based upon

Afanasevo culture of South Siberia, and the populations of both cultures are genetically indistinguishable.[1] This suggests that the Afanasevo culture may have originated from the migration of Yamnaya groups to the Altai region or, alternatively, that both cultures developed from an earlier shared cultural source.[6]

Genetic studies have suggested that the people of the Yamnaya culture can be modelled as a

hunter-gatherers from the Caucasus (CHG) in roughly equal proportions,[7] an ancestral component which is often named "Steppe ancestry", with additional admixture from Anatolian, Levantine, or Early European farmers.[8][9] Genetic studies also indicate that populations associated with the Corded Ware, Bell Beaker, Sintashta, and Andronovo cultures derived large parts of their ancestry from the Yamnaya or a closely related population.[1][10][11][12]

According to the widely-accepted

Proto Indo-European language, which later spread eastwards and westwards as part of the Indo-European migrations
.

Origins

See also: Kurgan hypothesis and Marija Gimbutas
Corded Ware in the contact zone east of the Carpathian mountains; 3100–2600 Yamnaya expansion into the Danube Valley.[15][16][17]

The Yamnaya culture was defined by Vasily Gorodtsov in order to differentiate it from the Catacomb and Srubnaya cultures that existed in the area, but were considered to be of a later period. Due to the time interval to the Yamnaya culture, and the reliance on archaeological findings, debate as to its origin is ongoing.[18] In 1996, Pavel Dolukhanov suggested that the emergence of the Pit-Grave culture represents a social development of various different local Bronze Age cultures, thus representing "an expression of social stratification and the emergence of chiefdom-type nomadic social structures" which in turn intensified inter-group contacts between essentially heterogeneous social groups.[19]

The origin of the Yamnaya culture continues to be debated, with proposals for its origins pointing to both the Khvalynsk and Sredny Stog cultures.[18] The Khvalynsk culture (4700–3800 BCE)[20] (middle Volga) and the Don-based Repin culture (c. 3950–3300 BCE)[21] in the eastern Pontic-Caspian steppe, and the closely related Sredny Stog culture (c. 4500–3500 BCE) in the western Pontic-Caspian steppe, preceded the Yamnaya culture (3300–2500 BCE).[22][23]

Yamnaya culture grave, Volgograd Oblast

Further efforts to pinpoint the location came from Anthony (2007), who suggested that the Yamnaya culture (3300–2600 BCE) originated in the

Volga area at c. 3400 BC,[24][2] preceded by the middle Volga-based Khvalynsk culture and the Don-based Repin culture (c. 3950–3300 BCE),[21][2] arguing that late pottery from these two cultures can barely be distinguished from early Yamnaya pottery.[25] Earlier continuity from eneolithic but largely hunter-gatherer Samara culture and influences from the more agricultural Dnieper–Donets II
are apparent.

He argues that the early Yamnaya horizon spread quickly across the Pontic–Caspian steppes between c. 3400 and 3200 BCE:[24]

The spread of the Yamnaya horizon was the material expression of the spread of late Proto-Indo-European across the Pontic–Caspian steppes.[26]
[...] The Yamnaya horizon is the visible archaeological expression of a social adjustment to high mobility – the invention of the political infrastructure to manage larger herds from mobile homes based in the steppes.[27]

Alternatively, Parpola (2015) relates both the Corded ware culture and the Yamnaya culture to the late

Trypillia (Tripolye) culture.[28] He hypothesizes that "the Tripolye culture was taken over by PIE speakers by c. 4000 BCE,"[29] and that in its final phase the Trypillian culture expanded to the steppes, morphing into various regional cultures which fused with the late Sredny Stog (Serednii Stih) pastoralist cultures, which, he suggests, gave rise to the Yamnaya culture.[30] Dmytro Telegin viewed Sredny Stog and Yamna as one cultural continuum and considered Sredny Stog to be the genetic foundation of the Yamna.[31]

The Yamnaya culture was succeeded in its western range by the

BCE
).

Characteristics

Remains of a Yamnaya barrow (or kurgan) in Prydnistryanske, Ukraine

The Yamnaya culture was nomadic[4] or semi-nomadic, with some agriculture practiced near rivers, and a few fortified sites, the largest of which is Mikhaylivka.[32]

Characteristic for the culture are the

tumuli), often accompanied by animal offerings. Some graves contain large anthropomorphic stelae, with carved human heads, arms, hands, belts, and weapons.[33] The dead bodies were placed in a supine position with bent knees and covered in ochre. Some kurgans contained "stratified sequences of graves".[34] Kurgan burials may have been rare, and were perhaps reserved for special adults, who were predominantly, but not necessarily, male.[35] Status and gender are marked by grave goods and position, and in some areas, elite individuals are buried with complete wooden wagons.[36] Grave goods are more common in eastern Yamnaya burials, which are also characterized by a higher proportion of male burials and more male-centred rituals than western areas.[37]

The Yamnaya culture had and used two-wheeled carts and four-wheeled wagons, which are thought to have been oxen-drawn at this time, and there is evidence that they rode horses.[38][39] For instance, several Yamnaya skeletons exhibit specific characteristics in their bone morphology that may have been caused by long-term horseriding.[38]

Metallurgists and other craftsmen are given a special status in Yamnaya society, and metal objects are sometimes found in large quantities in elite graves. New metalworking technologies and weapon designs are used.[36]

Stable isotope ratios of Yamna individuals from the Dnipro Valley suggest the Yamnaya diet was terrestrial protein based with insignificant contribution from freshwater or aquatic resources.[40] Anthony speculates that the Yamnaya ate meat, milk, yogurt, cheese, and soups made from seeds and wild vegetables, and probably consumed mead.[41]

Mallory and Adams suggest that Yamnaya society may have had a tripartite structure of three differentiated social classes, although the evidence available does not demonstrate the existence of specific classes such as priests, warriors, and farmers.[42]

Gallery

  • Corded ware pot
    Corded ware pot
  • Daggers, arrowheads and bone artefacts
    Daggers, arrowheads and bone artefacts
  • Yamanaya decorative artifacts.
    Yamanaya decorative artifacts.
  • The Kernosivsky idol (late Yamnaya)
    The Kernosivsky idol (late Yamnaya)
  • Western Yamnaya artefacts
    Western Yamnaya artefacts
  • Illustration of a Yamnaya wagon
    Illustration of a Yamnaya wagon
  • Yamnaya burials from Moldova
    Yamnaya burials from Moldova
  • Metal artefacts from Russia
    Metal artefacts from Russia
  • Silver and gold jewellery from Bulgaria
    Silver and gold jewellery from Bulgaria
  • Artefacts from the Northern Caucasus, 3rd millennium BCE
    Artefacts from the
    Northern Caucasus
    , 3rd millennium BCE
  • Ceramic vessel
    Ceramic vessel
  • Cis-Ural Yamnaya artefacts and burials
    Cis-Ural Yamnaya artefacts and burials
  • Horses were domesticated on the Pontic-Caspian steppe.[43]
    Horses were domesticated on the Pontic-Caspian steppe.[43]
  • Yamnaya artefacts from the steppe-Urals, early (1) and late (2)
    Yamnaya artefacts from the steppe-Urals, early (1) and late (2)

Archaeogenetics

Further information: Western Steppe Herders
Caucasus Hunter-Gatherers (CHG).[44]

According to Jones et al. (2015) and Haak et al. (2015),

Western Steppe Herder
(WSH) ancestry.

Reconstruction of a Yamnaya burial from Prydnistryanske, Ukraine

Admixture between EHGs and CHGs is believed to have occurred on the eastern Pontic-Caspian steppe starting around 5,000 BCE, while admixture with

Early European Farmers (EEF) happened in the southern parts of the Pontic-Caspian steppe sometime later. More recent genetic studies have found that the Yamnaya were a mixture of EHGs, CHGs, and to a lesser degree Anatolian farmers and Levantine farmers, but not EEFs from Europe due to lack of WHG DNA in the Yamnaya. This occurred in two distinct admixture events from West Asia into the Pontic-Caspian steppe.[47][48]

Western Hunter Gatherer (  WHG) ancestry.[49]

Early European Farmers.[51][52] A small but significant number of Yamnaya kurgan specimens from Northern Ukraine carried the East Asian mtDNA haplogroup C4.[53][54]

People of the Yamnaya culture are believed to have had mostly brown eye colour, light to intermediate skin, and brown hair colour, with some variation.[55][56]

Some Yamnaya individuals are believed to have carried a mutation to the KITLG gene associated with blond hair, as several individuals with Steppe ancestry are later found to carry this mutation. The Ancient North Eurasian Afontova Gora group, who contributed significant ancestry to Western Steppe Herders, are believed to be the source of this mutation.[57] A study in 2015 found that Yamnaya had the highest ever calculated genetic selection for height of any of the ancient populations tested.[58][59] It has been hypothesized that an allele associated with lactase persistence (conferring lactose tolerance into adulthood) was brought to Europe from the steppe by Yamnaya-related migrations.[60][61][62][63]

Yamnaya wagon/cart burial from Novoselytsia, Ukraine

A 2022 study by Lazaridis et al. found that the typical phenotype among the Yamnaya population was brown eyes, brown hair, and intermediate skin colour. None of their Yamnaya samples were predicted to have either blue eyes or blond hair, in contrast with later Steppe groups in Russia and Central Asia, as well as the Bell Beaker culture in Europe, who did carry these phenotypes in high proportions.[64]

The geneticist David Reich has argued that the genetic data supports the likelihood that the people of the Yamnaya culture were a "single, genetically coherent group" who were responsible for spreading many Indo-European languages.[65] Reich's group recently suggested that the source of Anatolian and Indo-European subfamilies of the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) language may have been in west Asia and the Yamna were responsible for the dissemination of the latter.[9] Reich also argues that the genetic evidence shows that Yamnaya society was an oligarchy dominated by a small number of elite males.[66]

The genetic evidence for the extent of the role of the Yamnaya culture in the spread of Indo-European languages has been questioned by Russian archaeologist Leo Klejn[67] and Balanovsky et al.,[68] who note a lack of male haplogroup continuity between the people of the Yamnaya culture and the contemporary populations of Europe. Klejn has also suggested that the autosomal evidence does not support a Yamnaya migration, arguing that Western Steppe Herder ancestry in both contemporary and Bronze Age samples is lowest around the Danube in Hungary, near the western limits of the Yamnaya culture, and highest in Northern Europe, which Klejn argues is the opposite of what would be expected if the geneticists' hypothesis is correct.[69]

Language

Illustration of the closely related Afanasievo culture

Near Eastern origin of the earliest Indo-European speakers.[73]

Copper, gold and silver artefacts from western Ukraine

According to David W. Anthony, the genetic evidence suggests that the leading clans of the Yamnaya were of EHG (Eastern European hunter-gatherer) and WHG (Western European hunter-gatherer) paternal origin[74] and implies that the Indo-European languages were the result of "a dominant language spoken by EHGs that absorbed Caucasus-like elements in phonology, morphology, and lexicon."[75] It has also been suggested that the PIE language evolved through trade interactions in the circum-Pontic area in the 4th millennium BCE, mediated by the Yamna predecessors in the North Pontic steppe.[76]

Guus Kroonen et al. 2022 found that the "basal Indo-European stage", also known as

Indo-Anatolian or Pre-Proto-Indo-European language, largely but not totally, lacked agricultural-related vocabulary, and only the later "core Indo-European languages" saw an increase in agriculture-associated words. According to them, this fits a homeland of early core Indo-European within the westernmost Yamnaya horizon, around and west of the Dnieper, while its basal stage, Indo-Anatolian, may have originated in the Sredny Stog culture, as opposed to the eastern Yamnaya horizon. The Corded Ware culture may have acted as major source for the spread of later Indo-European languages, including Indo-Iranian, while Tocharian languages may have been mediated via the Catacomb culture. They also argue that this new data contradicts a possible earlier origin of Pre-Proto-Indo-European among agricultural societies South of the Caucasus, rather "this may support a scenario of linguistic continuity of local non-mobile herders in the Lower Dnieper region and their genetic persistence after their integration into the successive and expansive Yamnaya horizon". Furthermore the authors mention that this scenario can explain the difference in paternal haplogroup frequency between the Yamnaya and Corded Ware cultures, while both sharing similar autosomal DNA ancestry.[77]

Yamnaya-related migrations

See also: Indo-European migrations
Steppe hypothesis
.

Western Europe

See also: Corded Ware culture

Genetic studies have found that Yamnaya autosomal characteristics are very close to the

Sardinians (c. 2.4–7.1 %), and Sicilians (c. 5.9–11.6 %).[79][70][12]

However, according to Heyd, et al. (2023), the specific paternal DNA haplogroup that is most commonly found in male Yamnaya specimens cannot be found in modern Western Europeans, or in males from the nearby Corded Ware culture. This makes it unlikely that the Corded Ware culture can be directly descended from the Yamnaya culture, at least along the paternal line.[80]

Autosomal tests also indicate that the Yamnaya are the vector for "Ancient North Eurasian" admixture into Europe.[10] "Ancient North Eurasian" is the name given in literature to a genetic component that represents descent from the people of the Mal'ta–Buret' culture[10] or a population closely related to them. That genetic component is visible in tests of the Yamnaya people[10] as well as modern-day Europeans. [81]

Eastern Europe and Finland

According to Allentoft (2015), the Sintashta culture probably derived from the Corded Ware Culture.

In the Baltic, Jones et al. (2017) found that the Neolithic transition – the passage from a hunter-gatherer economy to a farming-based economy – coincided with the arrival en masse of individuals with Yamnaya-like ancestry. This is different from what happened in Western and Southern Europe, where the Neolithic transition was caused by a population that came from Anatolia, with Pontic steppe ancestry being detected from only the late Neolithic onward.[82]

Per Haak et al. (2015), the Yamnaya contribution in the modern populations of Eastern Europe ranges from 46.8% among Russians to 42.8% in Ukrainians. Finland has the highest Yamnaya contributions in all of Europe (50.4%).[83][e]

Central and South Asia

See also: Sintashta culture
Srubna, Bactria-Margiana Culture
are shown in green.
Copper Hoard and PGW cultures are candidates for cultures associated with Indo-Aryan
migrations.

Studies also point to the strong presence of Yamnaya descent in the current nations of South Asia, especially in groups that are referred to as Indo-Aryans.

Srubnaya, Petrovka, and Sintashta. Moving further east in the central steppe, it acquired ~9% ancestry from a group of people that possessed West Siberian Hunter Gatherer ancestry, thus forming the Central Steppe MLBA cluster, which is the primary source of steppe ancestry in South Asia, contributing up to 30% of the ancestry of the modern groups in the region.[84]

According to Unterländer et al. (2017), all Iron Age

Yenisey River, to varying degrees, but generally higher among Eastern Scythians. [86]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ /ˈjæmnaɪə/ YAM-ny-yə; Russian: Ямная культура, romanized: Yámnaya kultúra, pronounced [ˈjamnəjə kʊlʲˈturə], from яма "pit, hole"
  2. ^ /ˈjæmnə/ YAM-nə; Ukrainian: Ямна культура, romanized: Jamna kuľtura, Ukrainian pronunciation: [ˈjamnɐ kʊlʲˈturɐ], lit. 'culture of pits'
  3. ^ Yamnayan cultural aspects, for example, were horse-riding, burial styles, and to some extent the pastoralist economy.
  4. ^ The Eastern European hunter-gatherers were themselves mostly descended from ancient North Eurasians, related to the palaeolithic Mal'ta–Buret' culture.
  5. ^ Per Haak et al. (2015), adding a north-Siberian people as a fourth reference population improves residuals for northeastern European populations. This accounts for the higher than expected Yamnaya contribution and brings it down to expected levels (67.8–50.4 % in Finns, 64.9–46.8 % in Russians).
  6. ^ Lazaridis et al. (2016) Supplementary Information, Table S9.1: "Kalash – 50.2 %, Tiwari Brahmins – 44.1 %, Gujarati (four samples) – 46.1 % to 27.5 %, Pathan – 44.6 %, Burusho – 42.5 %, Sindhi – 37.7 %, Punjabi – 32.6 %, Balochi – 32.4 %, Brahui – 30.2 %, Lodhi – 29.3 %, Bengali – 24.6 %, Vishwabhramin – 20.4 %, Makrani – 19.2 %, Mala – 18.4 %, Kusunda – 8.9 %, Kharia – 6.5 %."

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  86. ^ Unterländer et al. 2017Genomic inference reveals that Scythians in the east and the west of the steppe zone can best be described as a mixture of Yamnaya-related ancestry and an East Asian component. Demographic modelling suggests independent origins for eastern and western groups with ongoing gene-flow between them, plausibly explaining the striking uniformity of their material culture. We also find evidence that significant gene-flow from east to west Eurasia must have occurred early during the Iron Age." and "The blend of EHG [European hunter-gatherer] and Caucasian elements in carriers of the Yamnaya culture was formed on the European steppe and exported into Central Asia and Siberia". We therefore considered an alternative model in which we treat them as a mix of Yamnaya and the Han (Supplementary Table 25). This model fits all of the Iron Age Scythian groups, consistent with these groups having ancestry related to East Asians not found in the other populations. Alternatively, the Iron Age Scythian groups can also be modelled as a mix of Yamnaya and the north Siberian Nganasan (Supplementary Note 2, Supplementary Table 26).

Sources

External links

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