Al-Zaytuna Mosque
Al-Zaytuna Mosque | |
---|---|
Religion | |
Affiliation | Sunni Islam |
Location | |
Location | Tunis, Tunisia |
Geographic coordinates | 36°47′50″N 10°10′16″E / 36.7972°N 10.1711°E |
Architecture | |
Architect(s) | Fathallah (Fath al-Banna') |
Type | Mosque |
Style | Moorish (Aghlabid and other periods) |
Date established | 698 CE |
Completed | 864 CE (with later additions) |
Specifications | |
Minaret(s) | 1 |
Minaret height | 43 meters (141 ft 1 in) |
Al-Zaytuna Mosque, also known as Ez-Zitouna Mosque, and El-Zituna Mosque (
Etymology
One legend states that it was called "Mosque of Olive" because it was built on an ancient place of worship where there was an olive.[citation needed] Another account, transmitted by the 17th century Tunisian historian Ibn Abi Dinar,[3] reports the presence of a Byzantine Christian church dedicated to Santa Olivia at that location.[2][3] Archeological investigations and restoration works in 1969–1970 have shown that the mosque was built over an existing Byzantine-era building with columns, covering a cemetery.[2] This may have been a Christian basilica, which provides support for the legend reported by Ibn Abi Dinar.[3] A more recent interpretation by Muhammad al-Badji Ibn Mami suggests that the previous structures may have been part of a Byzantine fortification, inside which the Arab conquerors built their mosque.[2] This hypothesis is also supported by Sihem Lamine.[7]
The saint is particularly venerated in Tunisia because it is superstitiously thought that if the site and its memory are profaned then a misfortune will happen; this includes a belief that when her relics are recovered Islam will end.[8] This ancillary legend related to the discovery of the saint's relics is widespread in Sicily, however it is connected to other Saints as well.[9] In 1402 king Martin I of Sicily requested the return of Saint Olivia's relics from the Berber Caliph of Ifriqiya Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz II, who refused him.[10] Even today the Tunisians, who still venerate her, believe that the dominion of their religion will fade when the body of the Virgin Olivia will disappear.[10]
History
Foundation
Al-Zaytuna was the second mosque to be built in
Modern historians have been divided over whether the foundation should be attributed to Ibn al-Habhab or to Ibn al-Nu'man.[2] Most scholars support the second explanation[2][5] and attribute the foundation to Ibn al-Nu'man in 698 CE.[11][3][7][13] This is the strongest by evidence as it is unlikely that the city of Tunis remained a long time without a mosque after its conquest in 79 Hijri.[5] Under this explanation, it is assumed that Ibn al-Habhab subsequently enlarged or rebuilt the mosque and improved its architecture.[2][11][5][14]
Aghlabid reconstruction
The mosque owes its current overall form to a reconstruction under the Aghlabids, the dynasty that ruled Ifriqiya on behalf of the Abbasid caliphs in the 9th century. The work was begun during the reign of emir Abu Ibrahim Ahmad and completed in 864–865.[15]: 38–40 [7][3] As a result, the mosque's layout is also very similar to the Mosque of Uqba in Kairouan, which was also rebuilt by the Aghlabids earlier in the same century.[15]: 38–41 A contemporary inscription at the base of the dome in front of the mihrab gives the date of this construction and names three individuals: 1) the Abbasid caliph al-Musta'in Billah, identified as the main patron;[7] 2) Nusayr, a mawla of the caliph and probably the overseer of the works;[7] and 3) Fathallah or Fath al-Banna', the architect and chief builder.[3][7] Another inscription, along one of the mosque's courtyard façades, provides the same information.[7] The Aghlabid emir himself (Abu Ibrahim Ahmad) is not mentioned in these inscriptions, suggesting that he may not have been officially involved in the construction and that Nusayr was directing the works directly on behalf of the Abbasid caliph instead.[7]
The Aghlabid structure, in turn, is mostly obscured today by later additions and reconstructions. The sections that are best preserved from the 9th century are the interior of the prayer hall (though some of this was later rebuilt too) and the projecting round corner bastions at the northern and eastern corners of the mosque.[15]: 38–40 There is no evidence that a minaret was attached to the mosque at this time. The reasons for this omission are unclear. It suggests that minarets were not yet a standard feature of congregational mosques[15]: 41 or that they were still considered a controversial innovation at the time.[7]
Later history
Scholarship and the University
There is little information about teaching at the Zaytuna Mosque prior to the 14th century. During this time there were most likely courses being offered voluntarily by
Rich libraries were also attached to the university. The manuscripts covered almost all subjects and sciences, including grammar,
Administrative and curricular reforms to the institution were begun by Ahmad Bey in 1842. They continued in 1875 under Prime Minister
After independence from France, reforms to the education system in 1958 and the creation of the
Architecture
The al-Zaytuna Mosque followed the design and architecture of previous mosques, particularly the Mosque of Uqba in Kairouan that was built in its current form a few decades earlier.[15]: 41 The layout of the building and its interior is irregular, with many of its lines not quite parallel or perpendicular, but this is not perceptible to a visitor.[15]: 38–39 The building consists primarily of a trapezoidal courtyard (sahn) and a hypostyle prayer hall. The main difference between this mosque and the Kairouan mosque is the position of the minaret, which in this case was added at a much later period.[15]: 41 The mosque is closely integrated into the urban fabric and most of the building's exterior is concealed by other neighbouring structures. Only on the eastern side of the mosque is there an external façade, fronted by an arcaded loggia from 1637.[15]: 39–40, 220 The adjoining rooms and structures around the rest of the mosque's perimeter include shops, libraries, and maqsuras (areas reserved for specific individuals or groups during prayer).[15]: 39–40 [7]
The courtyard is accessible from the exterior via seven doorways and is surrounded by galleries supported by arcades of arches and columns.[3] The gallery on the southern side, preceding the prayer hall, dates from the 10th-century Zirid restoration and is supported by spoliated antique columns and capitals,[3] while the three other galleries currently date from the 17th and 19th centuries,[7] with columns imported from Italy by the prime minister Mustapha Khaznadar in the mid-19th century.[3] The pavement of the courtyard itself consists of antique marble plaques, also spolia.[7] The square minaret rises from the northwest corner of the courtyard. Built in 1894, the minaret is 43 meters (141 ft) high[11] and imitates the decoration of the Almohad minaret of the Kasbah Mosque with its limestone strap-work in a sebka pattern on a background of ochre sandstone.[3]
The central entrance to the prayer hall is covered by a dome, the Qubbat al-Bahu, added by the Zirids around 991.
The hypostyle prayer hall is divided into 15 aisles by rows of columns, 6
-
The exterior eastern façade of the mosque, with its 17th-century loggia
-
Courtyard of the mosque, looking east, with the entrance to the prayer hall on the right
-
Sundial and wells in the courtyard
-
The present-day minaret (built in 1894)
-
Bab al-Bahu, the central entrance to the prayer hall, and its dome (Qubbat al-Bahu)[7]
-
Interior of the prayer hall
-
View of the area around the mihrab
-
The mihrab of the mosque
-
Exterior view of the dome in front of the mihrab
See also
- List of the oldest mosques in the world
References
- ^ a b Ben Achour, M.A. (1991). Masjid al-Zaytūna: al-rijalu wa’l ma’lem [The Zaytuna Mosque: the men and the monument] (in Arabic). Tunis: Cérès Production.
- ^ ISBN 9789004161214.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Ben Mami, Mohamed Béji. "Great Mosque of Zaytuna". Discover Islamic Art - Museum With No Frontiers. Retrieved 2022-10-31.
- ^ "About Zaytuna Institute". Zaytuna Institute of California. Archived from the original on 2009-02-27.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Al-Zaytuna Mosque through History". Al-Zaytuna Mosque. Archived from the original on 2010-01-27. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ^ "Al-Zaytuna Theological and Scientific Influence on the Islamic World". Al-Zaytuna Mosque. Archived from the original on 2010-05-12. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-35566-8.
- ^ (in Italian) S. ROMANO. "Una santa palermitana venerata dai maomettani a Tunisi". Archivio storico siciliano, XXVI (1901), pp. 11–21.
- cfr. també F. SCORZA BARCELLONA. "Santi africani in Sicilia (e siciliani in Africa) secondo Francesco Lanzoni". Dins: Storia della Sicilia e tradizione agiografica nella tarda antichità. Atti del Convegno di Studi (Catania, 20–22 maggio 1986), a cura de Salvatore Pricoco. Catanzaro 1988, pp. 37–55.
- ^ (in Italian) Daniele Ronco (2001). Il Maggio di Santa Oliva: Origine Della Forma, Sviluppo Della Tradizione. ETS, Pisa University, IT. 325 pages. pp. 18–19.
- ^ a b (in Italian) Sant' Oliva di Palermo Vergine e martire. SANTI, BEATI E TESTIMONI. 10 giugno. Retrieved: 02 February, 2015.
- ^ a b c d "Jemaâ Ezzitouna". Municipality of Tunis. Archived from the original on 2009-05-26. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
- ^ a b "Lieux de culte Municipalité de Tunis" (in French). Government of Tunis. Archived from the original on August 11, 2009. Retrieved July 23, 2010.
- ^ ISBN 9783902782199.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-35566-8.
- ^ ISBN 9780300218701.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Deeb, Mary-Jane (1995). "Zaytūnah". In Esposito, John L. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. Oxford University Press. pp. 374–375.
- ^ Charnay, Jean-Paul (January–February 1979). "Economy and Religion in the Works of Ibn Khaldun". The Maghreb Review. 4 #1: 1–25.
- ^ Abd el-Hafiz, Mansour (1969). Fihris Makhtutat el-Maktaba al- Ahmadiya bi Tunis. Beirut: Dar el-Fat'h. pp. 8–9.
- ^ Sibai, M. (1987). Mosque Libraries : An Historical Study. London and New York: Mansell Publishing Limited. p. 98.
- ^ a b "Tunis reopens ancient Islamic college to counter radicals". Reuters. 2012-04-04. Retrieved 2022-11-03.
- ^ a b Feuer, Sarah (2016). State Islam in the Battle against extremism: Emerging Trends in Morocco & Tunisia. The Washington Institute for Near East Policy.
- ^ "Controversy Surrounding the Al-Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis: The Ambivalent Revival of Islamic Traditions - Qantara.de". Qantara.de - Dialogue with the Islamic World. Retrieved 2022-11-03.