Ibn Khaldun

Ibn Khaldun (

.

He has been called one of the most prominent Muslim and Arab scholars and historians.

traditionalist school

).

Family

Ibn Khaldun's life is relatively well-documented, as he wrote an autobiography (التعريف بابن خلدون ورحلته غربا وشرقا, at-Taʻrīf bi-ibn Khaldūn wa-Riḥlatih Gharban wa-Sharqan;^[24] Presenting Ibn Khaldun and his Journey West and East) in which numerous documents regarding his life are quoted word-for-word.

Abdurahman bin Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Al-Hasan bin Jabir bin Muhammad bin Ibrahim bin Abdurahman bin Ibn Khaldun al-Hadrami, generally known as "Ibn Khaldūn" after a remote ancestor, was born in

historiographer of the court.^[26]

In his autobiography, Khaldun traces his descent back to the time of Muhammad through an Arab tribe from the south of the

Hujr ibn 'Adi

, from the best of the Arabs, well-known and respected." (p. 2429, Al-Waraq's edition).

Ibn Khaldun's insistence and attachment to his claim of Arab ancestry at a time of Berber dynasties domination is a valid reason to believe his claim of Arab descent.[27]^[28]

Education

His family's high rank enabled Ibn Khaldun to study with prominent teachers in

Tusi. At the age of 17, Ibn Khaldūn lost both his parents to the Black Death, an intercontinental epidemic of the plague that hit Tunis in 1348–1349.^[30]

Following family tradition, he strove for a political career. In the face of a tumultuous political situation in North Africa, that required a high degree of skill in developing and dropping alliances prudently to avoid falling with the short-lived regimes of the time.[31] Ibn Khaldūn's autobiography is the story of an adventure, in which he spends time in prison, reaches the highest offices and falls again into exile.

Political career

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At the age of 20, he began his political career in the chancellery of the Tunisian ruler Ibn Tafrakin with the position of Kātib al-'Alāmah (seal-bearer),

Marinid

sultan, Abū Inan Fares I, appointed him as a writer of royal proclamations, but Ibn Khaldūn still schemed against his employer, which, in 1357, got the 25-year-old a 22-month prison sentence. Upon the death of Abū Inan in 1358, Vizier al-Hasān ibn-Umar granted him freedom and reinstated him to his rank and offices. Ibn Khaldūn then schemed against Abū Inan's successor, Abū Salem Ibrahim III, with Abū Salem's exiled uncle, Abū Salem. When Abū Salem came to power, he gave Ibn Khaldūn a ministerial position, the first position to correspond with Ibn Khaldūn's ambitions.

The treatment that Ibn Khaldun received after the fall of Abū Salem through Ibn-Amar ʻAbdullah, a friend of Ibn Khaldūn's, was not to his liking, as he received no significant official position. At the same time, Amar successfully prevented Ibn Khaldūn, whose political skills he knew well, from allying with the Abd al-Wadids in Tlemcen. Ibn Khaldūn, therefore, decided to move to

Pedro the Cruel

, to endorse a peace treaty. Ibn Khaldūn successfully carried out this mission and politely declined Pedro's offer to remain at his court and have his family's Spanish possessions returned to him.

In Granada, Ibn Khaldūn quickly came into competition with Muhammad's vizier, Ibn al-Khatib, who viewed the close relationship between Muhammad and Ibn Khaldūn with increasing mistrust. Ibn Khaldūn tried to shape the young Muhammad into his ideal of a wise ruler, an enterprise that Ibn al-Khatib thought foolish and a danger to peace in the country. As a result of al-Khatib's influence, Ibn Khaldūn was eventually sent back to North Africa. Al-Khatib himself was later accused by Muhammad of having unorthodox philosophical views and murdered despite an attempt by Ibn Khaldūn to intercede on behalf of his old rival.

In his autobiography, Ibn Khaldūn tells little about his conflict with Ibn al-Khatib and the reasons for his departure. Orientalist Muhsin Mahdi interprets that as showing that Ibn Khaldūn later realised that he had completely misjudged Muhammad V.

Back in

Abu Faris Abdul Aziz

, who had defeated the sultan of Tlemcen and seized the throne. He then entered a monastic establishment and occupied himself with scholastic duties until 1370. In that year, he was sent for to Tlemcen by the new sultan. After the death of ʻAbdu l-Azīz, he resided at Fez, enjoying the patronage and confidence of the regent.

Ibn Khaldūn's political skills and, above all, his good relationship with the wild Berber tribes were in high demand among the North African rulers, but he had begun to tire of politics and constantly switching allegiances. In 1375, he was sent by Abū Hammu, the ʻAbdu l Wadid Sultan of Tlemcen, on a mission to the Dawadida Arabs tribes of Biskra. After his return to the West, Ibn Khaldūn sought refuge with one of the Berber tribes in the west of

Qalat Ibn Salama. He lived there for over three years under their protection, taking advantage of his seclusion to write the Muqaddimah "Prolegomena", the introduction to his planned history of the world. In Ibn Salama, however, he lacked the necessary texts to complete the work.^[33] Therefore, in 1378, he returned to his native Tunis, which had meanwhile been conquered by Abū l-Abbas, who took Ibn Khaldūn back into his service. There, he devoted himself almost exclusively to his studies and completed his history of the world. His relationship with Abū l-Abbas remained strained, as the latter questioned his loyalty. That was brought into sharp contrast after Ibn Khaldūn presented him with a copy of the completed history that omitted the usual panegyric to the ruler. Under pretence of going on the Hajj to Mecca, something for which a Muslim ruler could not simply refuse permission, Ibn Khaldūn was able to leave Tunis and to sail to Alexandria

.

Later life

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Mohandessin

, Cairo

Ibn Khaldun said of

Western Africa). His efforts at reform encountered resistance, however, and within a year, he had to resign his judgeship. Also in 1384, a ship carrying Khaldun's wife and children sank off of Alexandria

.

After his return from a pilgrimage to Mecca in May 1388, Ibn Khaldūn concentrated on teaching at various Cairo madrasas. At the Mamluk court he fell from favor because during revolts against Barquq, he had, apparently under duress, with other Cairo jurists, issued a fatwa against Barquq. Later relations with Barquq returned to normal, and he was once again named the Maliki qadi. Altogether, he was called six times to that high office, which, for various reasons, he never held long.

In 1401, under Barquq's successor, his son

Mongol conqueror, Timur, who besieged Damascus in 1400. Ibn Khaldūn cast doubt upon the viability of the venture and really wanted to stay in Egypt. His doubts were vindicated, as the young and inexperienced Faraj, concerned about a revolt in Egypt, left his army to its own devices in Syria and hurried home. Ibn Khaldūn remained at the besieged city for seven weeks, being lowered over the city wall by ropes to negotiate with Timur, in a historic series of meetings that he reported extensively in his autobiography.^[35] Timur questioned him in detail about conditions in the lands of the Maghreb. At his request, Ibn Khaldūn even wrote a long report about it. As he recognized Timur's intentions, he did not hesitate, on his return to Egypt, to compose an equally-extensive report on the history of the Tatars, together with a character study of Timur, sending them to the Merinid rulers in Fez

.

Ibn Khaldūn spent the next five years in Cairo completing his autobiography and his history of the world and acting as teacher and judge. Meanwhile, he was alleged to have joined an underground party, Rijal Hawa Rijal, whose reform-oriented ideals attracted the attention of local political authorities. The elderly Ibn Khaldun was placed under arrest. He died on 17 March 1406, one month after his sixth selection for the office of the Maliki qadi (Judge).

Works

• Kitāb al-ʻIbar, (full title: Kitāb al-ʻIbar wa-Dīwān al-Mubtadaʼ wa-l-Khabar fī Taʼrīkh al-ʻArab wa-l-Barbar wa-Man ʻĀṣarahum min Dhawī ash-Shaʼn al-Akbār "Book of Lessons, Record of Beginnings and Events in the History of the Arabs and the Berbers and Their Powerful Contemporaries"); begun as a history of the
  Berbers and expanded to a universal history in seven books.^[36][37]

Book 1; Al-Muqaddima ('The Introduction'), a socio-economic-geographical universal history of empires, and the best known of his works.^[38]

Books 2–5; World History up to the author's own time.

Books 6–7; Historiography of the

Berber history

.

Concerning the discipline of

Georgetown University Professor Ibrahim Oweiss, an economist and historian, argues that Ibn Khaldun was a major forerunner of modern economists and, in particular, originated the labor theory of value long before better known proponents such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo, although Khaldun did not refer to it as either a labor theory of value or theory.^[45]

Ibn Khaldun also called for the creation of a science to explain society and went on to outline these ideas in his major work, the Muqaddimah, which states that “Civilization and its well-being, as well as business prosperity, depend on productivity and people’s efforts in all directions in their own interest and profit”.^[46]

Ibn Khaldun diverged from norms that Muslim historians followed and rejected their focus on the credibility of the transmitter and focused instead on the validity of the stories and encouraged critical thinking.^[47]

Ibn Khaldun also outlines early theories of division of labor, taxes, scarcity, and economic growth.^[48]

He argued that poverty was a result of the destruction of morality and human values. He also looked at what factors contribute to wealth, such as consumption, government, and investment. Khaldun also argued that poverty was not necessarily a result of poor financial decision-making but of external consequences and therefore the government should be involved in alleviating poverty. Researchers from Malaysia's Insaniah University College and Indonesia's Tazkia University College of Islamic Economics created a dynamics model based upon Ibn Khaldun's writings to measure poverty in the Muslim nations of South Asia and Southeast Asia.^[49]

Ibn Khaldun also believed that the currency of an Islamic monetary system should have intrinsic value and therefore be made of gold and silver (such as the dirham). He emphasized that the weight and purity of these coins should be strictly followed: the weight of one dinar should be one mithqal (the weight of 72 grains of barley, roughly 4.25 grams) and the weight of 7 dinar should be equal to weight of 10 dirhams (7/10 of a mithqal or 2.96 grams).^[50]

Ibn Khaldun's writings regarding the division of labor are often compared to Adam Smith's writings on the topic.

The individual being cannot by himself obtain all the necessities of life. All human beings must co-operate to that end in their civilization. But what is obtained by the cooperation of a group of human beings satisfies the need of a number many times greater than themselves. For instance, no one by himself can obtain the share of the wheat he needs for food. But when six or ten persons, including a smith and a carpenter to make the tools, and others who are in charge of the oxen, the ploughing of, the harvesting of the ripe grain, and all other agricultural activities, undertake to obtain their food and work toward that purpose either separately or collectively and thus obtain through their labour a certain amount of food, that amount will be food for a number of people many times their own. The combined labour produces more than the needs and necessities of the workers (Ibn Khaldun 1958, vol. II 271–272)^[51]

In every other art and manufacture, the effects of the division of labour are similar to what they are in this very trifling one [pin production]; though, in many of them, the labour can either be so much subdivided, nor reduced to so great a simplicity of operation. The division of labour, however, so far as it can be introduced, occasions, in every art, a proportionable increase of the productive powers of labour (Smith 1976a, vol. I, 13–24)^[51]

Both Ibn Khaldun and Smith shared the idea that the division of labor is fundamental to economic growth, however, the motivations and context for such division differed between them. For Ibn Khaldun, asabiyyah or social solidarity was the underlying motive and context behind the division of labor; for Smith it was self-interest and the market economy.^[51]

Social thought

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Ibn Khaldun's epistemology attempted to reconcile mysticism with theology by dividing science into two different categories, the religious science that regards the sciences of the Qur'an and the non-religious science. He further classified the non-religious sciences into intellectual sciences such as logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, etc. and auxiliary sciences such as language, literature, poetry, etc. He also suggested that possibly more divisions will appear in the future with different societies. He tried to adapt to all possible societies’ cultural behavior and influence in education, economics and politics. Nonetheless, he didn't think that laws were chosen by just one leader or a small group of individual but mostly by the majority of the individuals of a society.^[52]

To Ibn Khaldun, the state was a necessity of human society to restrain injustice within the society, but the state means is force, thus itself an injustice. All societies must have a state governing them in order to establish a society. He attempted to standardize the history of societies by identifying ubiquitous phenomena present in all societies. To him, civilization was a phenomenon that will be present as long as humans exist. He characterized the fulfillment of basic needs as the beginning of civilization. At the beginning, people will look for different ways of increasing productivity of basic needs and expansion will occur. Later the society starts becoming more sedentary and focuses more on crafting, arts and the more refined characteristics. By the end of a society, it will weaken, allowing another small group of individuals to come into control. The conquering group is described as an unsatisfied group within the society itself or a group of desert bandits that constantly attack other weaker or weakened societies.

In the Muqaddimah, his most important work, he discusses an introduction of philosophy to history in a general manner, based on observable patterns within a theoretical framework of known historical events of his time. He described the beginnings, development, cultural trends and the fall of all societies, leading to the rise of a new society which would then follow the same trends in a continuous cycle. Also, he recommended the best political approaches to develop a society according to his knowledge of history. He heavily emphasized that a good society would be one in which a tradition of education is deeply rooted in its culture.^[32] Ibn Khaldun (1987) introduced the word asabiya (solidarity, group feeling, or group consciousness), to explain tribalism. The concept of asabiya has been translated as "social cohesion," "group solidarity," or "tribalism." This social cohesion arises spontaneously in tribes and other small kinship groups (Rashed,2017).

Ibn Khaldun believed that too much bureaucracy, such as taxes and legislations, would lead to the decline of a society, since it would constrain the development of more specialized labor (increase in scholars and development of different services). He believed that bureaucrats cannot understand the world of commerce and do not possess the same motivation as a businessman.^[32]

In his work the Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun emphasizes human beings' faculty to think (fikr) as what determines human behavior and ubiquitous patterns. This faculty is also what inspires human beings to form into a social structure to co-operate in division of labor and organization. According to Zaid Ahmand in Epistemology and the Human Dimension in Urban Studies, the fikr faculty is the supporting pillar for all philosophical aspects of Ibn Khaldun's theory related to human beings’ spiritual, intellectual, physical, social and political tendencies.

Another important concept he emphasizes in his work is the mastery of crafts, habits and skills. This takes place after a society is established and according to Ibn Khaldun the level of achievement of a society can be determined by just analyzing these three concepts. A society in its earliest stages is nomadic and primarily concerned with survival, while a society at a later stage is sedentary, with greater achievement in crafts. A society with a sedentary culture and stable politics would be expected to have greater achievements in crafts and technology.^[32]

Ibn Khaldun also emphasized in his epistemology the important aspect that educational tradition plays to ensure the new generations of a civilization continuously improve in the sciences and develop culture. Ibn Khaldun argued that without the strong establishment of an educational tradition, it would be very difficult for the new generations to maintain the achievements of the earlier generations, let alone improve them.

Another way to distinguish the achievement of a society would be the language of a society, since for him the most important element of a society would not be land, but the language spoken. He was surprised that many non-Arabs were really successful in the Arabic society, had good jobs and were well received by the community. "These people were non-Arab by descent, but they grew up among the Arabs who possessed the habit of Arabic," Ibn Khaldun once recalled, "[b]ecause of this, they were able to master Arabic so well that they cannot be surpassed."^[53] He believed that the reason why non-Arabs were accepted as part of Arab society was due to their mastery of the Arabic language.

Advancements in literary works such as poems and prose were another way to distinguish the achievement of a civilization, but Ibn Khaldun believed that whenever the literary facet of a society reaches its highest levels it ceases to indicate societal achievements anymore, but is an embellishment of life. For logical sciences he established knowledge at its highest level as an increase of scholars and the quality of knowledge. For him the highest level of literary productions would be the manifestation of prose, poems and the artistic enrichment of a society.^[54]

Religious thought

Ibn Khaldun believes that communication between the tangible and intangible world is the basis of every religion, and the credit for its occurrence is the human spirit, as it is the mediator between God and humans. It is immortal by nature and does not perish, and has characteristics that enable it to communicate with God. However, most souls have lost their hidden ability and are connected to the sensory world only. A small number of them still maintain their full ability to communicate with God. These are the ones God chose and they became prophets, so their souls leave the sensory world to receive from God. Their souls abandon the sensory world in order to receive from God what they should convey to humans. Religions arise only from this connection. He believes that religions that rely on institutions of prediction and reconnaissance are false, but they partly contain some truth. A person’s concentration on a specific thing for a long period makes him forget everything and become attached to what he focused on. Only, this focus makes him see the non-sensory world very quickly and in a very imperfect way, and these are pagan religions.^[55]

Ibn Khaldun agrees with Sufism and believes that if a person maintains his good faith and is stripped of the desire to create a new religion and strives to separate himself from the sensory world, he will be able to approach the divine essence and the ideas of scholars will appear to him clearly. But if he strives in this detachment and mysticism out of a desire to excel over others, he will not communicate with God, but with demons. Also, the human spirit is able to see some things of the future through vision, but on the condition that this spirit be completely upright and very pious and pure, otherwise the vision will come from the devils.^[55]

Minor works

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Eminent scholars 3rd AH/9th AD Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari (d. 324/936) Ibn Khafif (d. 371/982) 4th AH/10th AD Al-Baqillani (d. 403/1013) Ibn Furak (d. 406/1015) Abu Ishaq al-Isfarayini (d. 418/1027) 'Abd al-Qahir al-Baghdadi (d. 429/1037) Abu 'Imran al-Fasi (d. 430/1038-9) Abu Dharr al-Harawi (d. 434/1043) Al-Mawardi (d. 450/1058) Al-Bayhaqi (d. 458/1066) Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (d. 463/1071) Al-Qushayri (d. 465/1072) Abu al-Walid al-Baji (d. 474/1081) Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi (d. 476/1083) Al-Juwayni (d. 478/1085) 5th AH/11th AD Al-Raghib al-Isfahani (d. 502/1108) Al-Ghazali (d. 505/1111) Abu al-Qasim al-Ansari (d. 511 or 512/1117-19) Ibn 'Aqil (d. 513/1119) Ibn Rushd al-Jadd (d. 520/1126) Al-Mazari (d. 536/1141) Abu Bakr ibn al-'Arabi (d. 543/1148) Al-Qadi 'Iyad (d. 544/1149) Al-Shahrastani (d. 548/1153) Ibn 'Asakir (d. 571/1176) Ahmad al-Rifa'i (d. 578/1182) 6th AH/12th AD Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. 606/1209) Ibn al-Athir (d. 630/ 1233) Sayf al-Din al-Amidi (d. 631/1233) Ibn al-Hajib (d. 646/1248) 'Izz al-Din ibn 'Abd al-Salam (d. 660/1262) Al-Qurtubi (d. 671/1272) Al-Nawawi (d. 676/1277) Shihab al-Din al-Qarafi (d. 684/1285) Al-Baydawi (d. ca. 685/1286) Ibn al-Nafis (d. 687/1288) 7th AH/13th AD Ibn Daqiq al-'Id (d. 702/1302) Ibn 'Ata' Allah (d. 709/1309) Safi al-Din al-Hindi (d. 715/1315) Ibn Juzayy (d. 741/1340) Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati (d. 745/1344) Taqi al-Din al-Subki (d. 756/1355) Taj al-Din al-Subki (d. 771/1370) Shams al-Din al-Kirmani (d. 786/1384) Al-Taftazani (d. 793/1390) Badr al-Din al-Zarkashi (d. 794/1392) 8th AH/14th AD Ibn 'Arafa (d. 803/1401) Siraj al-Din al-Bulqini (d. 805/1405) Zain al-Din al-'Iraqi (d. 806/1404) Nur al-Din al-Haythami (d. 807/1404-5) Ibn Khaldun (d. 808/1406) Al-Sharif al-Jurjani (d. 816/1413) Ibn al-Jazari (d. 833/1429) Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani (d. 852/1449) Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d. 864/1459) 'Abd al-Rahman al-Tha'alibi (d. 875/1470) Ahmad Zarruq (d. 899/1493) 9th AH/15th AD Al-Sakhawi (d. 902/1497) Jalal al-Din al-Dawani (d. 907/1501 or 908/1502) Al-Suyuti (d. 911/1505) Al-Qastallani (d. 923/1517) Zakariyya al-Ansari (d. 926/1520) Al-Sha'rani (d. 973/1565) Ibn Hajar al-Haytami (d. 974/1567) Al-Khatib al-Shirbini (d. 977/1570) 10th AH/16th AD Ibn 'Ashir (d. 1040/1631) Ahmad al-Maqqari (d. 1041/1632) Ibrahim al-Laqqani (d. 1041/1631) Muhammad Mayyara (d. 1072/1662) 11th AH/17th AD Al-Hasan al-Yusi (d. 1102/1691) Muhammad al-Zurqani (d. 1122/1710) 'Abdallah ibn 'Alawi al-Haddad (d. 1132/1720) Shah Waliullah Dehlawi (d. 1176/1762) 12th AH/18th AD Ahmad al-Dardir (d. 1204/1786) Ahmad ibn 'Ajiba (d. 1224/1809) Ibn Kiran (d. 1227/1812) Ahmad al-Tijani (d. 1230/1815) Ibrahim al-Bajuri (d. 1276/1859-60) Muhammad 'Ilish (d. 1299/1882) 13th AH/19th AD Ahmad Zayni Dahlan (d. 1304/1886) Yusuf al-Nabhani (d. 1350/1931) Bediüzzaman Said Nursi (d. 1379/1960) Muhammad al-'Arabi al-Tabbani (d. 1390/1970) Muhammad al-Tahir ibn 'Ashur (d. 1393/1973) 14th AH/20th AD Muhammad Mitwalli al-Sha'rawi (d. 1419/1998) Muhammad 'Alawi al-Maliki (d. 1425/2004) 'Abdullah al-Harari (d. 1429/2008) Nuh al-Qudah (d. 1432/2010) Muhammad Sa'id Ramadan al-Buti (d. 1434/2013) Wahbah al-Zuhayli (d. 1436/2015) Muhammad 'Ali al-Sabuni (d. 1442/2021)
Theological works Istihsan al-Khawd fi 'Ilm al-Kalam Mujarrad Maqalat al-Ash'ari Tabyin Kadhib al-Muftari Al-'Aqida al-Tahawiyya Sharh al-'Aqa'id al-Nasafiyya Al-Insaf Al-Irshad Al-Iqtisad Tahafut al-Falasifa Al-Asma' wa al-Sifat Al-Risala al-Qushayriyya Al-Farq bayn al-Firaq Al-Milal wa al-Nihal Asas al-Taqdis Daf' Shubah al-Tashbih Lubab al-Muhassal Al-Murshid al-Mu'een
Institutions Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad Al-Azhar University Al-Qarawiyyin University Al-Zaytuna Mosque Umayyad Mosque Dar al-Hadith al-Ashrafiyya Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) Islamic Education Movement International Islamic University Malaysia
Events 2016 International Islamic Conference
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From other sources we know of several other works, primarily composed during the time he spent in North Africa and

Ibn Khaldun's historical method had very few precedents or followers in his time. While Ibn Khaldun is known to have been a successful lecturer on jurisprudence within religious sciences, only very few of his students were aware of, and influenced by, his Muqaddimah.[59] One such student, Al-Maqrizi, praised the Muqaddimah, although some scholars have found his praise, and that of others, to be generally empty and lacking understanding of Ibn Khaldun's methods.^[59]

Ibn Khaldun also faced primarily criticism from his contemporaries, particularly

Ibn Khaldun's work found some recognition with Ottoman intellectuals in the 17th century. The first references to Ibn Khaldun in Ottoman writings appeared in the middle of the 17th century, with historians such as Kâtip Çelebi naming him as a great influence, while another Turkish Ottoman historian, Mustafa Naima, attempted to use Ibn Khaldun's cyclical theory of the rise and fall of empires to describe the Ottoman Empire.^[59] Increasing perceptions of the decline of the Ottoman Empire also caused similar ideas to appear independently of Ibn Khaldun in the 16th century, and may explain some of the influence of his works.^[59]

Europe

In Europe, Ibn Khaldun was first brought to the attention of the

British historian Arnold J. Toynbee has called Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddimah "the greatest work of its kind."^[65] Ernest Gellner, once a professor of philosophy and logic at the London School of Economics, considered Khaldun's definition of government^{[note 4]} the best in the history of political theory.^[66]

More moderate views on the scope of Ibn Khaldun's contributions have also emerged.

Arthur Laffer, for whom the Laffer curve is named, acknowledged that Ibn Khaldun's ideas, as well as others, precede his own work on that curve.^[67]

Economist Paul Krugman described Ibn Khaldun as "a 14th-century Islamic philosopher who basically invented what we would now call the social sciences".^[68]

19th century Scottish theologian and philosopher

In 2007, İbn Haldun Üniversitesi has opened in Istanbul, Turkey to commemorate his name. The university promotes a policy of trilingualism. The languages in question are English, Modern Turkish, and Arabic and its emphasis is on teaching social sciences.

In 1981 U.S. President

The Iraqi Navy named a frigate after Ibn Khaldun.

Bibliography

• Kitāb al-ʻIbar wa-Dīwān al-Mubtadaʼ wa-l-Khabar fī Taʼrīkh al-ʻArab wa-l-Barbar wa-Man ʻĀṣarahum min Dhawī ash-Shaʼn al-Akbār
• Lubābu-l-Muhassal fee Uswoolu-d-Deen
• Shifā'u-s-Sā'il
• ʻAl-Laqaw li-s-Sulṭān
• Ibn Khaldun. 1951 التعريف بإبن خلدون ورحلته غربا وشرقا Al-Taʻrīf bi Ibn-Khaldūn wa Riħlatuhu Għarbān wa Sharqān. Published by Muħammad ibn-Tāwīt at-Tanjī. Cairo (Autobiography in Arabic).
• Ibn Khaldūn. 1958 The Muqaddimah : An introduction to history. Translated from the Arabic by Franz Rosenthal. 3 vols. New York: Princeton.
• Ibn Khaldūn. 1967 The Muqaddimah : An introduction to history. Trans. Franz Rosenthal, ed. N.J. Dawood. (Abridged).
• Ibn Khaldun, 1332–1406. 1905 'A Selection from the Prolegomena of Ibn Khaldūn'. Trans. Duncan Macdonald

See also

• Al-Zahrawi
• Chanakya
• Historiography of early Islam
• Ibn Arabi
• Ibn Tufail
• List of Muslim historians
• List of pre-modern Arab scientists and scholars
• Sayyid Husayn Ahlati
• Science in medieval Islam

Notes

References

Citations

1. ^ "Ibn Khaldun – His Life and Work". Archived from the original on 13 September 2013. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
2. ISBN 978-0-19-975473-1
   .
3. ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0
   .
4. ^ ^{a b c d e} https://themaydan.com/2017/11/myth-intellectual-decline-response-shaykh-hamza-yusuf/ "Ibn Khaldun on Philosophy: After clarifying what was meant precisely by philosophy in the Islamic tradition, namely the various schools of peripatetic philosophy represented either by Ibn Rushd or Ibn Sina, it should be clear why Ibn Khaldun was opposed to them. His critique of philosophy is an Ash’ari critique, completely in line with the Ash’aris before him, including Ghazali and Fakhr al-din al-Razi, both of whom Ibn Khaldun recommends for those who wish to learn how to refute the philosophers"
5. ^ Muqaddimah 2:272–273 quoted in Weiss (1995) p. 30
6. ^ Weiss 1995, p. 31 quotes Muqaddimah 2:276–278
7. ISBN 978-1-134-78530-8
   . Ibn Khaldun drited away from Al-Farabi's political idealism.
8. ^ Shah, Muhammad Sultan. "Pre-Darwinian Muslim Scholars’ Views on Evolution." (2017).
9. ^ In al-Muqaddima, Ibn Khaldun cites him as a pioneer in sociology
10. ^ Ayub, Zulfiqar (2015). The Biographies of the Elite Lives of the Scholars, Imams & Hadith Masters. Zulfiqar Ayub Publications. p. 200.^{[ISBN missing]}
11. ISBN 978-0-7486-4497-1
    . Banu Khaldun al-Hadrami (Yemen, but not Qahtan), to which belonged the famous historian Ibn Khaldun. The family's ancestor was 'Uthman ibn Bakr ibn Khalid, called Khaldun, a Yemeni Arab among the conquerors who shared kinship with the Prophet's Companian Wa'il ibn Hujr and who settled first in Carmona and then in Seville. The Historical Muhammad, Irving M. Zeitlin (Polity Press, 2007), p. 21; "It is, of course, Ibn Khaldun as an Arab here speaking, for he claims Arab descent through the male line." The Arab World: Society, Culture, and State, Halim Barakat (University of California Press, 1993), p. 48; "The renowned Arab sociologist-historian Ibn Khaldun first interpreted Arab history in terms of badu versus hadar conflicts and struggles for power." Ibn Khaldun, M. Talbi, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. III, ed. B. Lewis, V.L. Menage, C. Pellat, J. Schacht, (Brill, 1986), 825; "Ibn Khaldun was born in Tunis, on I Ramadan 732/27 May 1332, in an Arab family which came originally from the Hadramawt and had been settled at Seville since the beginning of the Muslim conquest…" Ibn Khaldun's Philosophy of History: A Study in the Philosophic Foundation of the Science of Culture, Muhsin Mahdi, Routledge; "His family claimed descent from a Yemenite tribe originating in Hadramawt" Issawi, Charles."Ibn Khaldūn". Encyclopedia Britannica, 13 March 2021; "the greatest Arab historian", "the family claimed descent from Khaldūn, who was of South Arabian stock, and had come to Spain in the early years of the Arab conquest and settled in Carmona." Cheddadi, Abdesselam, “Ibn Khaldūn, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān”, Encyclopaedia of Islam, three; "was one of the greatest Arab historians, a philosopher, and a sociologist"
12. ^ Muhammad Hozien. "Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Work". Islamic Philosophy Online. Archived from the original on 13 September 2013. Retrieved 19 September 2008.
13. ^ "Ibn Khaldūn – The Muqaddimah: Ibn Khaldūn's philosophy of history". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 22 December 2020.
14. ISBN 1-84799-942-5
15. OCLC 914395509
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16. S2CID 144222817
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17. ^ • Joseph J. Spengler (1964). "Economic Thought of Islam: Ibn Khaldun", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 6(3), pp. 268–306.
      • (Boulakia 1971, pp. 1105–1118)
18. ^ Ali Zaidi, Islam, Modernity, and the Human Sciences, Springer, 2011, p. 84
19. ISBN 978-965-264-014-7
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20. S2CID 235841623
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21. ^ "Ibn Khaldun". Britannica. Retrieved 3 October 2023.
22. S2CID 239392974
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23. ^ "Arab American National Museum : Online Collections". Retrieved 25 February 2017.
24. ^ Published by Muḥammad ibn Tāwīt aṭ-Ṭanjī, Cairo 1951
25. ISBN 978-0-7486-4497-1
    . Banu Khaldun al-Hadrami (Yemen, but not Qahtan), to which belonged the famous historian Ibn Khaldun. The family's ancestor was 'Uthman ibn Bakr ibn Khalid, called Khaldun, a Yemeni Arab among the conquerors who shared kinship with the Prophet's Companian Wa'il ibn Hujr and who settled first in Carmona and then in Seville. The Historical Muhammad, Irving M. Zeitlin (Polity Press, 2007), p. 21; "It is, of course, Ibn Khaldun as an Arab here speaking, for he claims Arab descent through the male line." The Arab World: Society, Culture, and State, Halim Barakat (University of California Press, 1993), p. 48; "The renowned Arab sociologist-historian Ibn Khaldun first interpreted Arab history in terms of badu versus hadar conflicts and struggles for power." Ibn Khaldun, M. Talbi, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. III, ed. B. Lewis, V.L. Menage, C. Pellat, J. Schacht, (Brill, 1986), 825; "Ibn Khaldun was born in Tunis, on I Ramadan 732/27 May 1332, in an Arab family which came originally from the Hadramawt and had been settled at Seville since the beginning of the Muslim conquest…" Ibn Khaldun's Philosophy of History: A Study in the Philosophic Foundation of the Science of Culture, Muhsin Mahdi, Routledge; "His family claimed descent from a Yemenite tribe originating in Hadramawt" Issawi, Charles.^{[page needed]} "Ibn Khaldūn". Encyclopedia Britannica, 13 March 2021; "the greatest Arab historian", "the family claimed descent from Khaldūn, who was of South Arabian stock, and had come to Spain in the early years of the Arab conquest and settled in Carmona." Cheddadi, Abdesselam, “Ibn Khaldūn, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān”, Encyclopaedia of Islam, three; "was one of the greatest Arab historians, a philosopher, and a sociologist"
26. Société asiatique
    : 491. 1841.
27. ^ Hozien, Muhammad. "Notes on Ibn Khaludn's Life". Muslim philosophy.
28. ISBN 978-983-9541-53-3
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29. ^ Muhammad Hozien. "Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Work". Islamic Philosophy Online. Archived from the original on 13 September 2013. Retrieved 19 September 2008.
30. ^ "Saudi Aramco World: Ibn Khaldun and the Rise and Fall of Empires". archive.aramcoworld.com. Retrieved 6 December 2017.
31. ^ "Ibn Khaldun – His Life and Work". www.muslimphilosophy.com. Archived from the original on 13 September 2013. Retrieved 6 December 2017.
32. ^ ^{a b c d} "Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Works | Muslim Heritage". muslimheritage.com. Archived from the original on 6 December 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2017.
33. ^ Ibn Khaldun's Political and Economic Realism. 26 March 2016.
34. ^ "Ibn Khaldūn | Muslim historian". 23 May 2023.
35. ISSN 0950-3110
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36. ^ Ibn Khaldun the Muqaddimah. An Introduction to History. Translated from the Arabic by Franz Rosenthal. In Three Volumes. First Volume. 606 pages. Bollingen Foundation Series xliii. Princeton University Press. 1958. Prof. Dr. Darcy Carvalho. Feausp. Sao Paulo. Brazil. 2016
37. ^ "The Muqaddimah Volume 1". Retrieved 20 March 2024.
38. ^ Schmidt, Nathaniel. Ibn Khaldun: Historian, Sociologist and Philosopher. Universal Books, 1900.
39. ISBN 2-87775-391-3
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40. ^ Muqaddimah 2 1995 p 30
41. ^ Beyza Sümer (2012). "Ibn Khaldun's Asabiyya for Social Cohesion". Electronic Journal of Social Sciences. 11 (41).
42. JSTOR 4310424
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43. ISBN 978-0-7656-1059-1
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44. JSTOR 3590803
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45. ^ Oweiss, Ibrahim M. “Ibn Khaldun, the Father of Economics.” Georgetown University, State University of New York Press, 1988, faculty.georgetown.edu/imo3/ibn.htm.
46. ^ Khaldun, Ibn, et al. Muqaddimah – an Introduction to History. Princeton University Press, 2015.
47. ^ "The Amazing Arab Scholar Who Beat Adam Smith by Half a Millennium – Evonomics". Evonomics. 9 June 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2017.
48. ^ Irwin, Robert. Ibn Khaldun: an Intellectual Biography. Princeton University Press., 2018.
49. ^ Affandi, Akhmad, and Dewi Puji Astuti. “Dynamic Model of Ibn Khaldun Theory on Poverty.” Humanomics, vol. 30, no. 2, 2014, pp. 136–161.
50. ^ "index". 30 October 2020. Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 14 May 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
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52. ISBN 978-0-415-61275-3.^{[page needed}
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53. ^ Umar Ibn Al Khattab (2 Volumes), Umar Ibn Al Khattab (5 February 2017). Umar Ibn Al Khattab (2 Volumes).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
54. ^ "Full text of "Ibn Khaldun's Historiography"". archive.org. Retrieved 25 April 2018.
55. ^ ^{a b} Hussein, Taha (1925). Ibn Khaldun's Philosophy فلسفة ابن خلدون الاجتماعية. pp. 66–78. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
56. ^ "How Far Are We From The Slippery Slope? The Laffer Curve Revisited" by Mathias Trabandt and Harald Uhlig, NBER Working Paper No. 15343, September 2009.
57. ^ Laffer, Arthur. "The Laffer Curve: Past, Present, and Future". The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 4 July 2012.
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61. ^ Fischel, Walter (1952). Ibn Khaldun and Tamerlane: Their Historic Meeting in Damascus, A.D. 1401 (A.H. 803). Los Angeles: University of California Press.
62. ISBN 978-983-9541-53-3
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65. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., vol. 9, p. 148.
66. ^ Ernest Gellner, Plough, Sword and Book (1988), p. 239
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68. ^ Krugman, Paul (26 August 2013). "Opinion | The Decline of E-Empires". The New York Times.
69. ^ F.R.N. Nabarro; A.S. Argon (1996). Egon Orowan. 1901–1989. A Biographical Memoir (PDF). Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.
70. ^ A. Lakhsassi (1996). "25 – Ibn Khaldun". In S.H. Nasr; O. Leaman (eds.). History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Routledge. pp. 350–364.
71. ^ ^{a b} "2008 Ibn-Khaldun Essay Contest". www.atlasusa. Atlas Economic Research Foundation. Archived from the original on 12 September 2008.
72. ^ "Encounter of Civilizations: Ibn Khaldun Exhibit Opens at Headquarters". un.org. United Nations. Retrieved 25 April 2018.
73. ^ McFadden, Robert D. (2 October 1981). "Reagan Cites Islamic Scholar". The New York Times.
74. JSTOR 2708627
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75. S2CID 143508326
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76. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6435.1977.tb02006.x
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Sources

• Fuad Baali. 2005 The science of human social organization : Conflicting views on Ibn Khaldun's (1332–1406) Ilm al-umran. Mellen studies in sociology. Lewiston/NY: Edwin Mellen Press.
• Boulakia, Jean David C. (1971). "Ibn Khaldûn: A Fourteenth-Century Economist". Journal of Political Economy. 79 (5): 1105–1118.
  S2CID 144078253
  .
• Walter Fischel. 1967 Ibn Khaldun in Egypt : His public functions and his historical research, 1382–1406; a study in Islamic historiography. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Allen Fromherz
  . 2010 "Ibn Khaldun : Life and Times". Edinburgh University Press, 2010.
• Ana Maria C. Minecan, 2012 "El vínculo comunitario y el poder en Ibn Jaldún" in José-Miguel Marinas (Ed.), Pensar lo político: Ensayos sobre comunidad y conflicto, Biblioteca Nueva, Madrid, 2012.
• Mahmoud Rabi'. 1967 The political theory of Ibn Khaldun. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
• Róbert Simon. 2002 Ibn Khaldūn : History as science and the patrimonial empire. Translated by Klára Pogátsa. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. Original edition, 1999.
• Weiss, Dieter (1995). "Ibn Khaldun on Economic Transformation". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 27 (1). Cambridge University Press: 29–37.
  S2CID 162022220
  .

Further reading

• Muqaddima
  itself, Irwin's intellectual biography... is an excellent place to begin."

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ibn Khaldun.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Ibn Khaldun.

Arabic Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Ibn Khaldun

English

• Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Work, by Muhammad Hozien
• Ibn Khaldun on In Our Time at the BBC
• Rosenthal, Franz (2008) [1970–80]. "Ibn Khaldūn". Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Encyclopedia.com.
• Complete Muqaddimah/Kitab al-Ibar in English (without Chapter V, 13)
• The Tunisian American Center (US) Archived 16 April 2013 at archive.today
• Ibn Khaldun on the Web
• Muslim Scientists and Scholars – Ibn Khaldun
• Ibn Khaldun’s Philosophy of Management and Work
• Ibn Khaldun (al-Muqaddimah): Methodology & concepts of economic sociology
• Ibn Khaldun. The Mediterranean in the 14th century: Rise and fall of Empires. Andalusian Legacy exhibition in the
  Alcazar of Seville
• The Ibn Khaldun Community Service Award© Archived 25 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine
• Ibn Khaldun meets Al Saud
• The Ibn Khaldun Institute Archived 12 September 2014 at archive.today
• The Tunisian American Day© Archived 25 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine

Non-English

• Multilingual tunisian academic web site on Ibn Khaldun
• (in French) Exposé simplifié sur la théologie scolastique
• Chapters from the Muqaddimah and the History of Ibn Khaldun (in Arabic)
• Ismail Küpeli: Ibn Khaldun und das politische System Syriens – Eine Gegenüberstellung, München, 2007,
  ISBN 978-3-638-75458-3
  (German e-book about the politics of Syria with reference to the political theory of Ibn Khaldun)
• Kuchinov A.M. Ibn Khaldun influence on social thought development // Lomonosov-2013. – Moscow, 2013. In Russian.
• Master's thesis on Ibn Khaldun published by FFLCH-USP in 2017 Roschel, Renato – São Paulo, 2017. In Portuguese.