Amr ibn al-As
Amr ibn al-As عَمْرِو بْنِ الْعَاصِ | |
---|---|
Governor of Egypt | |
In office 640–646 | |
Monarchs | |
Preceded by | Office established |
Succeeded by | Malik ibn al-Harith[a] |
Succeeded by | Abd Allah ibn Amr Utba ibn Abi Sufyan[b] |
Governor of Palestine | |
In office 634–639 | |
Monarchs |
|
Preceded by | Office established |
Succeeded by | Alqama ibn Mujazziz |
Personal details | |
Born | c. 573 Mecca, Hejaz |
Died | c. 664 Egypt, Umayyad Caliphate | (aged 90–91)
Spouse(s) | Rayta or Hind bint Munabbih ibn al-Hajjaj Unnamed woman from Bali tribe Umm Kulthum bint Uqba |
Relations | Banu Sahm (clan) |
Children |
|
Parent(s) | Al-Nabigha bint Harmala |
Military service | |
Allegiance |
|
Years of service | 657–658 629–646 |
Battles/wars |
|
Amr ibn al-As ibn Wa'il al-Sahmi (
Amr launched the conquest of Egypt on his own initiative in late 639, defeating the Byzantines in a string of victories ending with the
After mutineers from Egypt
Early life and military career
Amr ibn al-As was born in c. 573.
There are conflicting reports about when Amr embraced Islam, with the most credible version placing it in 629/630, not long before the
Indeed, in October 629, Amr was tasked by Muhammad with leading the
Muhammad appointed Amr the governor of
Governor of Palestine and role in the Syrian conquest
Amr was one of four commanders dispatched by Abu Bakr to
Amr conquered the area around Gaza by February or March 634 and proceeded to besiege
The Muslims pursued the Byzantine army northward and besieged them at
In response to the series of defeats, the Byzantine emperor
First governorship of Egypt
Conquest of Egypt
From his base in southern Palestine, Amr launched the conquest of
Amr halted his campaign before the fortified Byzantine stronghold of
In late 641, Amr
In contrast to the disarray of the Byzantine defense, the Muslim forces under Amr's command were unified and organized; Amr frequently coordinated with Caliph Umar and his own troops for all major military decisions.
Expeditions in Cyrenaica and Tripolitania
After the surrender of Alexandria in 642, Amr marched his army westward, bypassing the fortified Byzantine coastal strongholds of Paraetonium (Marsa Matruh), Appolonia Sozusa (Marsa Soussa) and Ptolemais (Tolmeita), capturing Barca and reaching Torca in Cyrenaica.[58] Toward the end of the year, Amr launched a second cavalry assault targeting Tripoli. The city was heavily fortified by the Byzantines and contained several naval vessels in its harbor.[58] Due to his lack of siege engines, he employed the lengthy siege tactic used in the Egyptian conquest.[58] After about a month, his troops entered Tripoli through a vulnerable point in its walls and sacked the city.[58] Its fall, which entailed the evacuation by sea of the Byzantine garrison and most of the population, is dated to 642 or 643/44. Though the Arab hold over Cyrenaica and Zawila to the far south remained firm for decades except for a short-lived Byzantine occupation in 690, Tripoli was recaptured by the Byzantines a few years after Amr's entry.[58] The region was definitively conquered by the Arabs during the reign of Caliph Abd al-Malik (r. 685–705).[59]
Administration
Amr "regulated the government of the country [Egypt], administration of justice and the imposition of taxes", according to the historian A. J. Wensinck.[4] During his siege of Babylon, Amr had erected an encampment near the fortress.[60] He originally intended for Alexandria to serve as the Arabs' capital in Egypt, but Umar rejected this on the basis that no body of water, i.e. the Nile, should separate the caliph from his army.[61][62][63][c] Instead, following Alexandria's surrender, in 641 or 642,[65] Amr made his encampment near Babylon the permanent garrison town (miṣr) of Fustat, the first town founded by the Arabs in Egypt.[66][67][68] Its location along the eastern bank of the Nile River and at the head of the Nile Delta and edge of the Eastern Desert strategically positioned it to dominate the Upper and Lower halves of Egypt.[60] Fustat's proximity to Babylon, where Amr also established an Arab garrison, afforded the Arab settlers a convenient means to employ and oversee the Coptic bureaucratic officials who inhabited Babylon and proved critical to running the day-to-day affairs of the Arab government.[69][62]
Amr had the original tents of Fustat replaced with mud brick and baked brick dwellings.[66] Documents found in Hermopolis (al-Ashmunayn) dating from the 640s confirm official orders to forward building materials to Babylon to construct the new city.[70] The city was organized into allotments over an area stretching 5–6 kilometers (3.1–3.7 mi) along the Nile and 1–2 kilometers (0.62–1.24 mi) inland to the east.[62] The allotments were distributed among the components of Amr's army, with priority given to the Quraysh, the Ansar and Amr's personal guard, the 'Ahl al-Rāya' (People of the Banner),[62] which included several Bali tribesmen as a result of their kinship and marital ties to Amr.[17] An opposing theory holds that Amr did not assign the plots; rather, the tribes staked their own claims and Amr established a commission to resolve the ensuing land disputes.[71] At the center of the new capital Amr built a congregational mosque, later known as the Amr ibn al-As Mosque; the original structure was frequently redesigned and expanded between its foundation and its final form in 827.[69] Amr had his own dwelling built immediately east of the mosque and it most likely served as his government headquarters.[70]
In the northwestern part of Alexandria, Amr built a hilltop congregational mosque, later called after him,[72] before the Byzantine occupation of 645/46, after which he built a second called the Mosque of Mercy;[73] neither mosque has been presently identified.[74] Adjacent to the congregational mosque, Amr took personal ownership of a fort, which he later donated for government use.[75] This part of the city became the administrative and social core of Arab settlement in Alexandria.[76] Accounts vary as to the number of troops Amr garrisoned in the city, ranging from 1,000 soldiers from the Azd and Banu Fahm tribes to a quarter of the army which was replaced on a rotational basis every six months.[77]
As per the 641 treaty with Cyrus, Amr imposed a poll tax of two gold dinars on non-Muslim adult males.[78] He imposed other measures, sanctioned by Umar, that entailed the inhabitants' regular provision of wheat, honey, oil and vinegar as a subsistence allowance for the Arab troops.[79] He had these goods stored in a distribution warehouse called dār al-rizq.[78] After taking a census of the Muslims, he further ordered that each Muslim be annually supplied by the inhabitants a highly embroidered wool robe (Egyptian robes were prized by the Arabs), a burnous, a turban, a sirwal (trousers) and shoes.[79] In a Greek papyrus dated to 8 January 643 and containing Amr's seal (a fighting bull), Amr (transliterated as "Ambros") requests fodder for his army's animals and bread for his soldiers from an Egyptian village.[80] According to the historian Martin Hinds, there is "no evidence" that Amr "did anything to streamline the cumbersome fiscal system taken over from the Byzantines; rather, the upheavals of conquest can only have made the system more open to abuse than ever".[81]
After entering Alexandria, Amr invited the
Dismissal and aftermath
Amr acted relatively independent as governor and retained much of the surplus tax revenue of the province for the benefit of its troops despite pressure from Umar to forward proceeds to Medina.
Umar's successor Caliph Uthman (r. 644–656) initially kept Amr in his governorship and forged marital links with him by wedding to him his maternal half-sister Umm Kulthum bint Uqba ibn Abi Mu'ayt.[86] Uthman diluted Amr's power in 645/46 by transferring fiscal responsibilities to Ibn Abi Sarh, his own relative, leaving Amr in charge of military affairs.[87] Amr and Ibn Sa'd lodged complaints to Uthman each alleging the other of incompetence, prompting Uthman to dismiss Amr entirely and replace him in his duties with Ibn Sa'd.[87] Uthman's appointee established an effective fiscal system that largely preserved its Byzantine predecessor.[81] Ibn Sa'd reduced the fiscal privileges of Egypt's original Arab military settlers, who had been shown favor by Amr, and secured the remittance of the surplus to Medina.[88] This led to the consternation of the Arab garrisons and the native officials and elite, all of whom were "deprived of the opportunities for self-enrichment which they had hitherto enjoyed", according to Hinds.[89] Open opposition to Ibn Sa'd and Uthman began under the leadership of the Qurayshite Muhammad ibn Abi Hudhayfa in 654/55.[90]
Opposition to Uthman
Upon his return to Medina, Amr divorced Umm Kulthum and openly criticized Uthman.
After his last exchange with Uthman, Amr retired to his estate in southern Palestine.[94] The estate was called "Ajlan" after one of his mawālī (non-Arab, Muslim freedmen) and was located in the vicinity of "al-Sab'", which had conventionally been identified with modern Beersheba, but more likely corresponds with Bayt Jibrin, according to the historian Michael Lecker;[95] the medieval historians al-Baladhuri (d. 892) and Yaqut al-Hamawi (d. 1226) also suggest that Ajlan was located in the area of Bayt Jibrin.[96][d] Amr had likely become owner of the estate through a caliphal grant, though he possibly could have taken possession of it in the course of his conquest of Palestine and his ownership had been confirmed by the caliphs.[100] He lived on the estate, where he derived agricultural revenue, with his sons Muhammad and Abd Allah.[101][e]
At his estate Amr received news of the siege of Uthman's house and the Caliph's subsequent
Alliance with Mu'awiya
After Ali's victory against al-Zubayr, Talha and A'isha at the
When Ali's army set up camp around Siffin, south of the Euphrates town of Raqqa, in early June, Mu'awiya's advance guard led by Abu al-A'war refused them access to the watering places under their control.[115] After Ali protested, Amr advised Mu'awiya to accept their request as preventing access to water might rally the hitherto demotivated Iraqis to a determined fight against the Syrians.[116] Mu'awiya refused and the Iraqis subsequently defeated the Syrians led by Amr and Abu al-A'war in a skirmish known as the "Day of the Euphrates".[117] As head of the Syrian cavalry,[4] Amr held the overall field command for Mu'awiya's forces in the ensuing weeks-long Battle of Siffin and on occasion personally participated in direct combat, though without particular distinction.[118] At one point in the battle, he raised a black fabric given to him by Muhammad at the tip of his spear, symbolizing the command role given to him by Muhammad.[119]
As the Iraqis gained the battlefield advantage, Amr proposed to Mu'awiya that their men tie leaves from the Qur'an at the tips of their lances in an appeal to Ali's men to settle the conflict peacefully.
Amr and Abu Musa likely met twice, at
Reestablishment in Egypt
As early as 656/57, Amr and Mu'awiya persuaded Ibn Abi Hudhayfa, who had seized control of Egypt after Uthman's assassination, to meet them in al-Arish, where they took him captive in a ruse. Amr and Mu'awiya did not advance further than this point and Ibn Abi Hudhayfa was executed.
As per his agreement with Mu'awiya, Amr was installed as governor of Egypt for life and ruled as a virtual partner rather than a subordinate of Mu'awiya, who had become caliph after Ali's assassination and his son
Amr was permitted by the Caliph to retain personally the surplus revenues of the province after the payment of the troops' stipends and other government expenses.[130] He increased the original garrison at Fustat, numbering some 15,000 soldiers, with the Syrian troops he brought with him.[62] According to the historian Clive Foss "Amr ruled the country successfully, and with considerable independence and privilege, until his death".[3]
Narrated Hadiths
The narration of two hadiths are attributed to Amr ibn al-Aas.
Book of Purification #22
The number 22 text details a conversation that occurred between Amr ibn al-As and Muhammed while Muhammed was urinating.
Shurahbil ibn Hasana reported: I and Amr ibn al-As went to the Prophet (PBUH). He came out with a leather shield. He covered himself with it and urinated. Then we said: Look at him. He is urinating as a woman does. The Prophet (PBUH), heard this and said: Do you not know what befell a person from amongst Bani Isra'il? When urine fell on them, they would cut off the place where the urine fell; but that person forbade them, and was punished in his grave.[137][138][139]
This hadith excerpt is of an episode wherein Muhammed tells a cautionary tale to Amr ibn al-As and his companion about older Israeli customs of consequences for poor toilet etiquette.
Book of Purification #334
The number 334 text details a conversation between Amr ibn al-As and Muhammed about a sexual dream that Amr ibn al-As had.
I had a sexual dream on a cold night in the battle of Dhat as-Salasil. I was afraid, if I washed I would die. I, therefore, performed tayammum and led my companions in the dawn prayer. They mentioned that to the Messenger of Allah. He said:
"Amr, you led your companions is prayer while you were sexually defiled?"
I informed him of the cause which impeded me from washing. And I said: I heard Allah say: "Do not kill yourself, verily Allah is merciful to you."
The Messenger of Allah laughed and did not say anything.[140][141][142]
This hadith excerpt recounts an episode wherein Muhammed confronts Amr ibn al-As about leading a prayer without washing according to proper Islamic custom. When he confronts Amr ibn al-As, Amr ibn al-As admits it, and explains why, including a statement he heard Allah say. Muhammed responds only with laughter.
Death and legacy
Amr died of natural causes over the age of 90.
The traditional Egypt-based Arabic and
Descendants
Amr's estates in Palestine remained in the possession of his descendants as late as the 10th or 11th centuries.[147] His granddaughter Umm Abd Allah bint Abd Allah married the Umayyad viceroy of Egypt Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan (d. 705) and gave birth to his sons Suhayl and Sahl and daughters Sahla and Umm al-Hakam.[148][149][150] The estates in Medina that Amr's descendants inherited from him were confiscated by the Abbasids after they took over the Caliphate from the Umayyads in 750.[151] The estates were restored to Amr's family after the intercession of his great-granddaughter Abida al-Hasna bint Shu'ayb ibn Abd Allah, who married the Abbasid prince al-Husayn ibn Abd Allah ibn Ubayd Allah ibn Abbas (d. 758).[151]
Notes
- ^ Amr's son Abd Allah succeeded him as governor of Egypt for a few weeks before Caliph Mu'awiya I appointed his own brother Utba ibn Abi Sufyan to the post.[3]
- ^ The historian Albrecht Noth argues that the Islamic traditional account regarding Amr's intention to establish the Arab capital of Egypt in Alexandria and Caliph Umar's objection is a literary motif.[63] The historian Jelle Bruning, nonetheless, surmises that Umar "wanted close contact between the provincial capital [in Egypt] and the imperial capital [in Medina]", citing the importance of the canal connecting Babylon to the Red Sea.[64]
- ^ The historian Michael Lecker asserts that Ajlan is Khirbet Ajlan, an archaeological mound located north of Tell el-Hesi and southwest of modern Kiryat Gat,[97] while the archaeologist Jeffrey A. Blakely concludes that Ajlan was likely the much larger combined site of Khirbet Tannar and Khirbet Hazzarah located a little over one kilometer to the south of Khirbet Ajlan straddling the banks of the Wadi el-Hesi stream.[98] Blakely further identifies this combined site as the previously unidentified Crusader village "Agelen el Ahsses" and the 16th-century Ottoman-era hamlet "Ajlan".[99]
- ^ The mother of Amr's eldest son Abd Allah was named Rayta or Hind, the daughter of a certain Munabbih ibn al-Hajjaj. She fought alongside Amr and the Qurayshites against Muhammad at the Battle of Uhud in 625.[102][103] She later embraced Islam with a group of Qurayshite women in the presence of Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca in 629/30.[104]
- ^ Specific dates cited for Amr's death by the Muslim traditional historians include Eid al-Fitr 43 AH/January 664[130] and March 664.[3]
References
- ^ Buhl 1913–1936.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 192 note 228, pp. 265–266.
- ^ a b c d e Foss 2009a, p. 3.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Wensinck 1960, p. 451.
- ^ Lecker 1989, pp. 24–25.
- ^ Lecker 1989, pp. 25–26.
- ^ Lecker 1989, p. 25.
- ^ a b c Raisuddin 1981, p. 277.
- ^ a b Lecker 1987, p. 25.
- ^ a b Lecker 1989, p. 27.
- ^ Lecker 1989, pp. 27, 33.
- ^ Donner 1981, p. 67.
- ^ Donner 1981, pp. 65, 101–102.
- ^ a b Donner 1981, p. 102.
- ^ a b c Donner 1981, p. 104.
- ^ a b Lecker 1989, p. 28.
- ^ a b Lecker 1989, p. 28, note 34.
- ^ Lecker 1989, pp. 27–28.
- ^ Donner 1981, pp. 104–105.
- ^ Donner 1981, p. 111.
- ^ Donner 1981, p. 114.
- ^ Mayerson 1964, p. 160, note 14.
- ^ a b c d Donner 1981, p. 115.
- ^ Mayerson 1964, p. 198.
- ^ Kennedy 2007, p. 73.
- ^ Donner 1981, pp. 118–119.
- ^ Mayerson 1964, p. 195, note 126.
- ^ a b c Sourdel 1965, p. 910.
- ^ Donner 1981, p. 129.
- ^ Sourdel 1965, pp. 910–911.
- ^ Donner 1981, p. 153.
- ^ Donner 1981, p. 136.
- ^ a b c Donner 1981, p. 130.
- ^ Donner 1981, p. 137.
- ^ Donner 1981, p. 131.
- ^ Donner 1981, pp. 131–132.
- ^ Kennedy 2007, p. 96.
- ^ Donner 1981, pp. 133–135.
- ^ a b Sourdel 1965, p. 911.
- ^ a b Donner 1981, p. 151.
- ^ Kennedy 2007, pp. 91–92.
- ^ a b Lecker 1989, p. 30, note 61.
- ^ Kennedy 2007, p. 88.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Christides 1993, p. 153.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 61–62.
- ^ Kennedy 2004, p. 65.
- ^ a b Christides 1993, p. 154.
- ^ Christides 1993, pp. 153–154.
- ^ a b Bruning 2018, p. 90.
- ^ Christides 1993, pp. 154–155.
- ^ Bruning 2018, p. 27.
- ^ Bruning 2018, p. 40.
- ^ Bruning 2018, pp. 40–42.
- ^ Kennedy 2007, p. 162.
- ^ Bruning 2018, p. 43.
- ^ Christides 1993, p. 155.
- ^ a b c d e Christides 1993, p. 156.
- ^ a b c d e Christides 2000, p. 212.
- ^ Kennedy 2007, p. 217.
- ^ a b Jomier 1965, p. 957.
- ^ Kennedy 2004, p. 67.
- ^ a b c d e Foss 2009b, p. 268.
- ^ a b Bruning 2018, p. 24.
- ^ Bruning 2018, p. 24, note 10.
- ^ Akbar 1989, p. 26.
- ^ a b Scanlon 1968, p. 188.
- ^ Jomier 1965, pp. 957–958.
- ^ Bruning 2018, pp. 30–31.
- ^ a b Jomier 1965, p. 958.
- ^ a b Bruning 2018, p. 31.
- ^ Akbar 1989, pp. 26–27.
- ^ Bruning 2018, pp. 33–34.
- ^ Bruning 2018, p. 33, note 56.
- ^ Foss 2009b, p. 271.
- ^ Bruning 2018, p. 35.
- ^ Bruning 2018, pp. 35–36.
- ^ Bruning 2018, p. 39.
- ^ a b Foss 2009a, p. 17.
- ^ a b Foss 2009a, pp. 17–18.
- ^ Trombley 2013, pp. 29–30.
- ^ a b c Hinds 1972, p. 453.
- ^ a b Kennedy 2007, p. 163.
- ^ a b Kennedy 2007, p. 164.
- ^ Kennedy 2004, p. 69.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 62, 112 note 163.
- ^ Lecker 1989, p. 29.
- ^ a b Lecker 1989, p. 29, note 49.
- ^ a b c Kennedy 2004, p. 74.
- ^ Hinds 1972, pp. 453–454.
- ^ Hinds 1972, p. 454.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 90.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 91.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 91–92.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 92.
- ^ Lecker 1989, pp. 31–32, 36.
- ^ Lecker 1989, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Lecker 1989, p. 36.
- ^ Blakely 2010, p. 217.
- ^ Blakely 2010, pp. 211, 213, 217.
- ^ Lecker 1989, p. 37.
- ^ Lecker 1989, pp. 31–32, 37.
- ^ McDonald 1987, p. 107.
- ^ Faizer 2011, p. 101.
- ^ Faizer 2011, p. 418.
- ^ Lecker 1989, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 186.
- ^ a b Madelung 1997, p. 187.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 152.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 185.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 186–187.
- ^ a b c d Madelung 1997, p. 196.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 197.
- ^ a b Kennedy 2004, p. 78.
- ^ a b Madelung 1997, p. 224.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 225–226.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 226–227.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 227.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 237.
- ^ Lecker 1997, p. 554.
- ^ a b Madelung 1997, p. 238.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 242–243.
- ^ Kennedy 2004, pp. 78–79.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 254–255.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 256.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 257.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 257, 258 note 440.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. 95–96.
- ^ Kennedy 1998, pp. 68–69.
- ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 96.
- ^ a b c d e f Kennedy 1998, p. 69.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 267.
- ^ Hawting 1996, p. 157.
- ^ Kennedy 2004, pp. 80, 83.
- ^ a b Hawting 1996, pp. 223–224.
- ISSN 2197-5523. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
- ^ "About". HeinOnline. 8 March 2021. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
- ^ "English & Urdu, Purification Hadith". Hamariweb.com Islam. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
- ^ "Hadith No. 22, Purification (Kitab Al-Taharah) Sunan Abu Dawood". ahadith.co.uk. 12 April 2024. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
- ^ "Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". Sunnah.com (in Arabic). Retrieved 28 March 2024.
- ^ "English & Urdu, Purification Hadith". Hamariweb.com Islam. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
- ^ "Hadith No. 334, Purification (Kitab Al-Taharah) Sunan Abu Dawood". ahadith.co.uk. 12 April 2024. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
- ^ "Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". Sunnah.com (in Arabic). Retrieved 28 March 2024.
- ^ Lecker 1989, p. 29, note 50.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Kennedy 2007, p. 165.
- ^ Kennedy 2007, pp. 139–140.
- ^ Charles 1913, p. Chapter CXX, paragraph 36.
- ^ Lecker 1989, p. 31.
- ^ Muhammad ibn Sa'd 1904–1940, pp. 9–11.
- ^ Bewley 2000, p. 153.
- ^ Sijpesteijn 2014, p. 183.
- ^ a b Elad 2016, pp. 156–157.
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{{cite book}}
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