Aniconism
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Aniconism is the cultural absence of artistic representations (.
Aniconism has historical phases in both Buddhism and Christianity, though these movements have been largely rejected as Buddha in art, life of Buddha in art, Buddhas and bodhisattvas in art, God the Father in Western art, Holy Spirit in Christian art, the depiction of Jesus, The Trinity in art, and Manus Dei are common.[4] By contrast Judaism and Islam have predominantly been aniconistic throughout their histories, including representations of major figures such as Muhammad. [5]
The word "aniconism" is derived from
General aspects
In monotheistic religions, aniconism was shaped by theological considerations and historical contexts. It emerged as a corollary in which people believed that God was the ultimate power holder, and people who practiced it believed that they needed to defend God's unique status against competing external and internal forces, such as pagan idols and critical humans. Idolatry was seen as a threat to God's uniqueness, and one way in which prophets and missionaries chose to fight against it was through the prohibition of physical representations. The same solution worked against humans who pretended to have the same power of creation that God had (hence, their banishment from the Heavens, the destruction of Babel, and the Second Commandment in the biblical texts).
Some modern scholars who have studied various cultures have gathered material which shows that in many cases, the idea of aniconism is an intellectual construction rather than a fact of tangible reality, it suits specific intents and historical contexts.
In Buddhism
Since the beginning of the serious study of the history of
In relation to the image of the Buddha, this aniconistic tradition could have been based on an ancient Buddhist rule which prohibited images of the Buddha in which he appeared in human form, a rule which is written in the Sarvastivada vinaya (the rules of the early Buddhist school of the Sarvastivada): "Since it is not permitted to make an image of the Buddha's body, I pray that the Buddha will grant that I can make an image of the attendant Bodhisattva. Is that acceptable?" The Buddha answered: "You may make an image of the Bodhisattava".[7]
Although they are still a subject of debate, the first
However, in 1990, the notion of aniconism in Buddhism was challenged by
As for the archeological evidence, it shows that some anthropomorphic sculptures of the Buddha actually existed during the supposedly aniconistic period, which ended during the 1st century CE. Huntington also rejects the association of "aniconistic" and "iconic" art with the division that emerged between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism. Huntington's views have been challenged by Vidya Dehejia and others.[10] Although some earlier examples of them have been found in recent years, it is widely-believed that the large free-standing iconic images of the Buddha which are so prevalent in later works of Buddhist art are not prevalent in works of Buddhist art which were produced during the earliest period of the history of Buddhism; discussion is focused on smaller figures in relief panels, conventionally considered to represent scenes from the life of the Buddha, and now re-interpreted by Huntington and her supporters.
In Hinduism
Although aniconism is better known in connection to
In Christianity
Byzantine iconoclasm
There were two periods of iconoclasm, or icon-destruction, in the Byzantine Empire, in the mid eighth and early ninth centuries. The political aspects of the conflicts are complex, dealing with the relationship between the Byzantine Emperors, the Catholic Church and Orthodox Church councils, and the Pope. Theologically, the debate, as with most in Orthodox theology at the time, revolved around the two natures of Jesus. Iconoclasts believed that icons could not represent both the divine and the human natures of the Messiah at the same time, but separately. Because an icon which depicted Jesus as purely physical would be Nestorianism, and one which showed Him as both human and divine would not be able to do so without confusing the two natures into one mixed nature, which was Monophysitism, all icons were thus heretical. Reference was also made to the prohibitions on the worship of graven images in the Law of Moses.
During the Protestant Reformation
Aniconism was also prevalent during the
Among Christians today
In the
Some Amish prefer not to have their photo taken. This has been attributed to the Biblical commandment "Thou shalt not make unto thyself a graven image," and the belief that photographs can "steal your soul," among other reasons. Modern Amish differ in their attitudes towards photography, with some accepting it as a part of the modern world around them.[14]
Among Jehovah's Witnesses, followers are prohibited from wearing religious themed jewelry displaying icons such as the cross, as idol worship is prohibited. Having images or sculptures of Jesus, Jehovah (God), and angels is also considered a taboo according to their interpretation of Exodus 20:4,5 and 1 Corinthians 10:14.[15] Followers are also admonished to avoid any objects portraying depictions of the supernatural.[16]
In Islam
Theological views
The
Aniconism in Islam not only deals with the material image, but touches upon mental representations as well. It is a thorny question, discussed by early theologians, as to how to describe God, Muhammad and other prophets, and, indeed, if it is permissible at all to do so.
Aniconism in practice
In practice, the core of normative religion in
Depending on which segment of Islamic societies are referred to, the application of aniconism is characterized with noteworthy differences.
Neither is the representation of living beings in Islamic countries a modern phenomenon or due to current technology, westernization or the cult of the personality. Statues of humans and animals adorned palaces of the
Medieval Muslim artists found various ways not to infringe any prohibition of the image, while still representing living beings. It can be argued that since God is absolute, the act of depiction is his own and not that of a human; and miniatures are obviously very crude representations of the reality, so the two can't be mistaken.[41] At the material level, prophets in manuscripts can have their face covered by a veil[33] or all humans have a stroke drawn over their neck, a symbolic cut preventing them from being alive. Calligraphy, the most Islamic of arts in the Muslim world, has also its figurative side due to anthropo- and zoomorphic calligrams.
In Judaism
Hebrew Bible
A number of verses in the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) refer to prohibitions against the creation of various forms of images, invariably linked directly with idolatry. The strongest source is based on what Judaism counts as the second of the Ten Commandments:
Thou shalt not make unto thee a graven image, nor any manner of likeness, of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; thou shalt not bow down unto them, nor serve them; for I the LORD thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate Me; and showing mercy unto the thousandth generation of them that love Me and keep My commandments.
Leviticus 26:1 reads:
Ye shall make you no idols, neither shall ye rear you up a graven image, or a pillar, neither shall ye place any figured stone in your land, to bow down unto it; for I am the LORD your God.
Similar injunctions appear in
Based on these prohibitions, the Hebrew prophets, such as
Halakha
Despite the semantic association with idols,
A breakdown can be found in the Shulkhan Aruch, section
Differences across media
Although the prohibition mainly applies to sculpture, there are some authorities who also prohibit two-dimensional full-face depictions. Some base this upon their understanding of the Talmud,[citation needed] and others based it upon Kabbalah.[citation needed] Of note is the portrait of Rabbi Tzvi Ashkenazi (known as "the Hakham Tzvi"), which is housed in the Jewish Museum in London.[44] Based on his interpretation of this prohibition, Tzvi refused to sit for his portrait. However, the London Jewish Community wanted a portrait, so they commissioned the portrait to be done without the Tzvi's knowledge. Tzvi's son, Rabbi Jacob Emden, says it was a perfect likeness.
There is one type of representation,
Some authorities hold that Judaism has no objection to photography or other forms of two-dimensional art, and depictions of humans can be seen in religious books such as the
In historical periods
Many
The 3rd century CE Dura-Europos synagogue in Syria has large areas of wall paintings with figures of the prophets and others, and narrative scenes. There are several representations of the Hand of God, suggesting that this motif reached Christian art from Judaism.[citation needed] A virtually unique Christian mosaic depiction of the Ark of the Covenant (806) at Germigny-des-Prés, which includes the hand, is believed also to be derived from Jewish iconography; the Ark also appears at Dura-Europos.[45] Several ancient synagogues in the land of Israel have also been excavated, revealing large floor-mosaics with figurative elements, especially animals and representations of the Zodiac.
Some of these, notably at
There are many later Jewish illuminated manuscripts from the Middle Ages, and some other works with human figures. The "Birds' Head Haggadah" (German, now in Jerusalem) gives all the human figures the heads of birds, presumably in an attempt to mitigate any breach of the prohibition.[48]
Recent scholarship
In a refutation of the belief in an aniconistic form of Judaism, and more generally in an underestimation of Jewish visual arts, the historian of ideas Kalman Bland recently proposed that the phenomenon is a modern construction, and he backed up his claim by stating that "Jewish aniconism crystallized simultaneously with the construction of modern Jewish identities".[49] Others have also argued that the notion of a total prohibition of figural representation in the Biblical and Hellenistic-Roman periods is untenable.[50][51]
Until the 20th century, Judaism was always believed to have been an aniconistic religion. This view was probably first challenged by David Kaufmann, who marshalled a large and comprehensive corpus of data in order to prove that this belief was untenable. He was the first person to use the term "Jewish art" in an article which he published in 1878, and he is also considered the founder of the scholarly discipline of Jewish art history. In 1901, his disciple Dr. Samuel Krauss wrote:
As late as ten years ago it would have been absurd to speak about a Jewish art. It is Kaufmann's own merit to have uncovered this art. Not only did he have to prove that such an art existed, he also had to prove that it could exist, as he showed that the idea that the prohibition of images would obstruct the development of such an art was mistaken, and even established it as an irrefutable fact that the art in wide areas was not prohibited insofar as no worship was associated with it.[52]
In the Baháʼí Faith
For the followers of the
- "There is no objection that the believers look at the picture of Bahá'u'lláh, but they should do so with the utmost reverence, and should also not allow that it be exposed openly to the public, even in their private homes."
- (From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to an individual believer, December 6, 1939, republished in Lights of Guidance, p. 540)
Shoghi Effendi has also written in the Directives from the Guardian regarding the portrait of the Báb:
- "The portrait of the Báb should be regarded as an inestimable privilege and blessing to behold, as past generations were denied a glimpse of the Face of the Manifestation, once He had passed on."[53][54]
- (Shoghi Effendi, Directives from the Guardian, p. 43)
Two pictures of Bahá'u'lláh and a portrait of the Báb are on display at the
Other religions
In Africa aniconism varies from culture to culture from elaborate masks and statues of humans and animals to their total absence. A common feature, however, across the continent, is the refusal to give the "High God" a material shape.
About the
In the ancient Etruscan religion, the dii involuti or "veiled gods", a group of gods who were superior to the ordinary pantheon and regulated the infliction of disasters, were never named or depicted. Depictions of gods more generally were infrequent in Etruscan civilization until after the adoption of Greek influences in the "Orientalizing" period of the 7th–6th centuries BC, and sometimes carried negative associations, their faces in particular. An Etruscan divination calendar describes being "visited with visions of the faces of the gods" as a negative event.[56]
In some
See also
- Censorship
- Censorship by organized religion
- (in French) The figurative representation in Islamic Arts
- Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
References
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- ^ Huntington, opening pages
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- ^ Krishan, 9
- ^ See note 7 here for an update on the controversy as of 2007, and here for another from 2001.
- ^ a b (Huntington 1990) [1] and here
- ^ Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices, by Jeanne Fowler, pgs. 42–43, at Books.Google.com and Flipside of Hindu symbolism, by M. K. V. Narayan at pgs. 84–85 at Books.Google.com
- ^ "Bhagavad-Gita: Chapter 12, Verse 5". Retrieved 24 December 2016.
- ^ "The Shadow of Nestorius".
- ^ ""The Amish & Photographs" Amish Country News Article by Brad Igou, (1991, 2001)". Archived from the original on 2015-05-30. Retrieved 2015-05-30.
- ^ "Why Do Jehovah's Witnesses Not Use Images in Their Worship? — Watchtower ONLINE LIBRARY". wol.jw.org. Retrieved 2018-07-18.
- ^ "You, Too, Can Become Free — Watchtower ONLINE LIBRARY". wol.jw.org. Retrieved 2018-07-18.
- ^ "See 'Sura' and 'Taswir' in Encyclopaedia of Islam". Archived from the original on 2007-09-29.
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- ^ Joseph Gutmann: "Recent literature on Jewish art: a critical appraisal." In Jewish Book Annual 25 (5728/1967-1968) 167–169. See also Gabrielle Sed-Rajna's contribution to this volume.
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Sources
- Jack Goody, Representations and Contradictions: Ambivalence Towards Images, Theatre, Fiction, Relics and Sexuality, London, Blackwell Publishers, 1997. ISBN 0631205268.
- Compiled by Helen Bassett Hornby (1988). Lights of Guidance: A Baháʼí Reference File. Baháʼí Publishing Trust, India. ISBN 978-81-85091-46-4.
- S. L. Huntington, "Early Buddhist art and the theory of aniconism", Art Journal, 49:4 (1990): 401–8. [2]
- Terry Allen, "Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Art", Five Essays on Islamic Art, Occidental (CA), Solipsist, 1988. ISBN 0-944940-00-5 [3]
- (in French) Gilbert Beaugé & Jean-François Clément, L'image dans le monde arabe [The image in the Arab world], Paris, CNRS Éditions, 1995, ISBN 2-271-05305-6
- (in German) Rudi Paret, Das islamische Bilderverbot und die Schia [The Islamic prohibition of images and the Shi'a], Erwin Gräf (ed.), Festschrift Werner Caskel, Leiden, 1968, 224–32.
- Kalman P. Bland, The Artless Jew: Medieval and Modern Affirmations and Denials of the Visual, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2001. ISBN 069108985X Introduction: [4]