Australian frontier wars
Australian frontier wars | |||||||
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Aboriginal warriors during the Waterloo Creek massacre of 1838 | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
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Many others | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
George Arthur Others |
Pemulwuy Musquito Windradyne Yagan Tunnerminnerwait Truganini Tarenorerer Multuggerah Jandamarra Dundalli Mannalargenna Nemarluk Tarrarer Cocknose Partpoaermin Koort Kirrup Alkapurata | ||||||
Strength | |||||||
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Casualties and losses | |||||||
Minimum 2,000, highest 20,000 dead[3] | 100,000-115,000 dead[4] |
The Australian frontier wars were the violent conflicts between Indigenous Australians (including both Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders) and primarily British settlers during the colonial period of Australia.[5]
The first conflict took place several months after the landing of the First Fleet in January 1788, and the last conflicts occurred in the early 20th century following the federation of the Australian colonies in 1901, with some occurring as late as 1934. Conflicts occurred in a number of locations across Australia.
Estimates of the number of people killed in the fighting vary considerably.
Background and population
In 1770 an expedition from Great Britain under the command of then-Lieutenant
Some historians have argued that under prevailing European legal doctrine such land was deemed
The British Government decided to establish a prison colony in Australia in 1786.
The British colonisation of Australia commenced when the
The Indigenous population distribution illustrated below is based on two independent sources, firstly on two population estimates made by anthropologists and a social historian in 1930 and in 1988, and secondly on the basis of the distribution of known tribal land.[14]
State/territory | Share of population in the 1930 estimates | Share of population in the 1988 estimates | Distribution of tribal land |
---|---|---|---|
Queensland | 38.2% | 37.9% | 34.2% |
Western Australia | 19.7% | 20.2% | 22.1% |
New South Wales | 15.3% | 18.9% | 10.3% |
Northern Territory | 15.9% | 12.6% | 17.2% |
Victoria | 4.8% | 5.7% | 5.7% |
South Australia | 4.8% | 4.0% | 8.6% |
Tasmania | 1.4% | 0.6% | 2.0% |
All evidence suggests that the territory of Queensland had a pre-contact Indigenous population density more than double that of New South Wales, at least six times that of Victoria, and at least twenty times that of Tasmania. Equally, there are signs that the population density of Indigenous Australia was comparatively higher in the north-eastern sections of New South Wales, and along the northern coast from the Gulf of Carpentaria and westward including certain sections of the Northern Territory and Western Australia.[16]
State/territory | Population in numbers | Population in percentage |
---|---|---|
Queensland | 300,000 | 37.9% |
Western Australia | 150,000 | 20.2% |
New South Wales | 160,000 | 18.9% |
Northern Territory | 100,000 | 12.6% |
Victoria | 45,000 | 5.7% |
South Australia | 32,000 | 4.0% |
Tasmania | 5,000 | 0.6% |
Estimated total | 795,000 | 100% |
Impact of disease
The effects of disease, loss of hunting grounds and starvation of the Aboriginal population were significant. There are indications that
Traditional Aboriginal warfare
According to the historian John Connor, traditional Aboriginal warfare should be examined on its own terms and not by definitions of war derived from other societies. Aboriginal people did not have distinct ideas of war and peace, and traditional warfare was common, taking place between groups on an ongoing basis, with great rivalries being maintained over extended periods of time.[20] The aims and methods of traditional Aboriginal warfare arose from their small autonomous social groupings. The fighting of a war to conquer enemy territory was not only beyond the resources of any of these Aboriginal groupings, it was contrary to a culture that was based on spiritual connections to a specific territory. Consequently, conquering another group's territory may have been seen to be of little benefit. Ultimately, traditional Aboriginal warfare was aimed at continually asserting the superiority of one's own group over its neighbours, rather than conquering, destroying or displacing neighbouring groups.[21] As the explorer Edward John Eyre observed in 1845, whilst Aboriginal culture was "so varied in detail", it was "similar in general outline and character",[22] and Connor observes that there were sufficient similarities in weapons and warfare of these groups to allow generalisations about traditional Aboriginal warfare to be made.[22]
In 1840, the American-Canadian
Connor describes traditional Aboriginal warfare as both limited and universal. It was limited in terms of:[22]
- the number of members of each group, which restricted the number of warriors in any given engagement;
- the fact that their non-hierarchical social order militated against one leader combining many groups into a single force; and
- duration, due to social groups needing to regularly hunt and forage for food.
Traditional Aboriginal warfare was also universal, as the entire community participated in warfare, boys learnt to fight by playing with toy melee and missile weapons, and every initiated male became a warrior. Women were sometimes participants in warfare as warriors and as encouragers on the sidelines of formal battles, but more often as victims.[24]
While the selection and design of weapons varied from group to group, Aboriginal warriors used a combination of melee and missile weapons in traditional warfare. Spears, clubs and shields were commonly used in hand-to-hand fighting, with different types of shields favoured during exchanges of missiles and in close combat, and spears (often used in conjunction with spear throwers), boomerangs and stones used as missile weapons.[25]
Available weapons had a significant influence over the tactics used during traditional Aboriginal warfare. The limitations of spears and clubs meant that surprise was paramount during raids for women and revenge attacks, and encouraged ambushing and night attacks. These tactics were offset by counter-measures such as regularly changing campsites, being prepared to extinguish camp-fires at short notice, and posting parties of warriors to cover the escape of raiders.[26]
General history
First occupation
Initial peaceful relations between Indigenous Australians and Europeans began to be strained several months after the First Fleet established Sydney on 26 January 1788. The local Indigenous people became suspicious when the British began to clear land and catch fish, and in May 1788 five convicts were killed and an Indigenous man was wounded. The British grew increasingly concerned when groups of up to three hundred Indigenous people were sighted at the outskirts of the colony in June.[27] Despite this, Phillip attempted to avoid conflict, and forbade reprisals after being speared in 1790.[28] He did, however, authorise two punitive expeditions in December 1790 after his huntsman was killed by an Indigenous warrior named Pemulwuy, but neither was successful.[29][30]
Coastal and inland expansion
During the 1790s and early 19th century the British occupied areas along the Australian coastline. These settlements initially occupied small amounts of land, and there was little conflict between the colonisers and Indigenous peoples. Fighting broke out when the settlements expanded, however, disrupting traditional Indigenous food-gathering activities, and subsequently followed the pattern of European invasion in Australia for the next 150 years.[31] Whilst the reactions of the Aboriginal inhabitants to the sudden invasion by the British were varied, they became hostile when their presence led to competition over resources, and to the occupation of their lands. European diseases decimated Indigenous populations, and the occupation or destruction of lands and food resources sometimes led to starvation.[32] By and large neither the Europeans nor the Indigenous peoples approached the conflict in an organised sense, with the conflict more one between groups of colonisers and individual Indigenous groups rather than systematic warfare, even if at times it did involve British soldiers and later formed mounted police units. Not all Indigenous Australians resisted European encroachment on their lands either, whilst many also served in mounted police units and were involved in attacks on other tribes.[32] Colonisers in turn often reacted with violence, resulting in a number of indiscriminate massacres.[33][34] European activities provoking significant conflict included
Unequal weaponry
Opinions differ on whether to depict the conflict as one-sided and mainly perpetrated by Europeans on Indigenous Australians or not. Although tens of thousands more Indigenous Australians died than Europeans, some cases of mass killing were not massacres but quasi-military defeats, and the higher death toll was also caused by the technological and logistic advantages enjoyed by Europeans.[33] Indigenous tactics varied, but were mainly based on pre-existing hunting and fighting practices—utilizing spears, clubs and other simple weapons. Unlike the cases with the American Indian Wars and New Zealand Wars, in the main, the indigenous peoples failed to adapt to meet the challenge of the Europeans, and although there were some instances of individuals and groups acquiring and using firearms, this was not widespread.[35] In reality, the Indigenous peoples were never a serious military threat, regardless of how much the settlers may have feared them.[36] On occasions large groups attacked Europeans in open terrain and a conventional battle ensued, during which the Aboriginal residents would attempt to use superior numbers to their advantage. This could sometimes be effective, with reports of them advancing in crescent formation in an attempt to outflank and surround their opponents, waiting out the first volley of shots and then hurling their spears whilst settlers reloaded. Usually, however, such open warfare proved more costly for the Indigenous Australians than the Europeans.[37]
Central to the success of the Europeans was the use of firearms, but the advantages this afforded have often been overstated. Prior to the 19th century, firearms were often cumbersome muzzle-loading, smooth-bore, single shot weapons with flint-lock mechanisms. Such weapons produced a low rate of fire, whilst suffering from a high rate of failure and were only accurate within 50 metres (160 ft). These deficiencies may have given the Aboriginal residents some advantages, allowing them to move in close and engage with spears or
Dispersed frontiers
Fighting between Indigenous Australians and European settlers was localised, as Indigenous groups did not form confederations capable of sustained resistance. Conflict emerged as a series of violent engagements, and massacres across the continent.[39] According to the historian Geoffrey Blainey, in Australia during the colonial period: "In a thousand isolated places there were occasional shootings and spearings. Even worse, smallpox, measles, influenza and other new diseases swept from one Aboriginal camp to another ... The main conqueror of Aborigines was to be disease and its ally, demoralization".[40]
The
Frequent friendly relations
Frontier encounters in Australia were not universally negative. Positive accounts of Aboriginal customs and encounters are also recorded in the journals of early European explorers, who often relied on Aboriginal guides and assistance:
New South Wales
Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars
The first frontier war began in 1795 when encroaching British settlers established farms along the
Bathurst War
Conflict began again when the British expanded into inland
I felt it necessary to augment the Detachment at Bathurst to 75 men who were divided into various small parties, each headed by a Magistrate who proceeded in different directions in towards the interior of the Country ... This system of keeping these unfortunate People in a constant state of alarm soon brought them to a sense of their Duty, and ... Saturday their great and most warlike Chieftain has been with me to receive his pardon and that He, with most of His Tribe, attended the annual conference held here on the 28th Novr....[52]
Wars on the plains
From the 1830s settlers spread rapidly through inland eastern Australia, leading to widespread conflict. War took place across the
Tasmania
The British established a settlement in Van Diemen's Land (modern Tasmania) in 1803. Relations with the local Indigenous people were generally peaceful until the mid-1820s when pastoral expansion caused conflict over land. This led to sustained frontier warfare (the "Black War"), and in some districts farmers were forced to fortify their houses.[48] Over 50 British were killed between 1828 and 1830 in what was the "most successful Aboriginal resistance in Australia's history".[57]
In 1830
Western Australia
The first British settlement in Western Australia was established by a detachment of soldiers at
The Noongar nation, forced from traditional hunting grounds and denied access to sacred sites, turned to stealing settlers' crops and killing livestock to survive. In 1831 a Noongar person was murdered for taking potatoes; this resulted in Yagan killing a servant of the household, as was the response permitted under Noongar law. In 1832 Yagan and two others were arrested and sentenced to death, but settler Robert Menli Lyon argued that Yagan was defending his land from invasion and therefore should be treated as a prisoner of war. The argument was successful and the three men were exiled to Carnac Island under the supervision of Lyon and two soldiers. The group later escaped from the island.[58]
Fighting continued into the 1840s along the Avon River near York.[48]
In the Busselton region, relations between white settlers and the Wardandi people were strained to the point of violence, resulting in several Aboriginal deaths. In June 1841, George Layman was speared to death by Wardandi Elder Gaywal.[59] According to one source, Layman had got involved in an argument between Gaywal and another Wardandi person over their allocation of damper, and had pulled Gaywal's beard, which was considered a grave insult. According to another source, Layman had hired two of Gaywal's wives to work on his farm and would not let them go back to their husbands.[59][60] A manhunt for Layman's killer went on for several weeks, involving much bloodshed as Captain John Molloy, the Bussell brothers, and troops murdered unknown numbers of Aboriginal residents in what has become known as the Wonnerup massacre.[61] The posse eventually murdered Gaywal and abducted his three sons, two of whom were imprisoned on Rottnest Island.[59]
The discovery of gold near
Continued European settlement and expansion in Western Australia led to further frontier conflict, Bunuba warriors also attacked European settlements during the 1890s until Bunuba leader Jandamarra was killed in 1897.[62] Sporadic conflict continued in northern Western Australia until the 1920s, with a Royal Commission held in 1926 finding that at least eleven Indigenous Australians had been murdered in the Forrest River massacre by a police expedition in retaliation for the death of a European.[63]
South Australia
South Australia was settled in 1836 with no convicts and a unique plan for settlers to purchase land in advance of their arrival, which was intended to ensure a balance of landowners and farm workers in the colony. The Colonial Office was very conscious of the recent history of the earlier occupations in the eastern states, where there was a significant conflict with the Aboriginal population. On the initial Proclamation Day in 1836 Governor Hindmarsh, made a brief statement that explicitly stated how the native population should be treated. He said in part:
It is also, at this time especially, my duty to apprize the Colonists of my resolution, to take every lawful means of extending the same protection to the native population as to the rest of His Majesty's Subjects, and of my firm determination to punish with exemplary severity, all acts of violence or injustice which may in any manner be practiced or attempted against the natives, who are to be considered as much under the Safeguard of the law as the Colonists themselves, and equally entitled to the privileges of British Subjects.[64]
Governor Gawler declared in 1840 that Aboriginal people "have exercised distinct, defined, and absolute right or proprietary and hereditary possession ... from time immemorial".[65] The Governor ordered land to be set aside for the Aboriginal population, but there was bitter opposition from settlers who insisted on a right to choose the best land. Eventually, the land was available to Aboriginal people only if it promoted their "Christianisation" and they became farmers.[64]
The designation of the Aboriginal population as British citizens gave them rights and responsibilities of which they had no knowledge and ignored existing Aboriginal customary law.[66] However, Aboriginal people could not testify in court, since, not being Christians, they could not swear an oath on a bible. There was also great difficulty in translation. The intentions of those establishing and leading the new colony soon came into conflict with the fears of Aboriginal people and the new settlers. "In South Australia, as across Australia's other colonies, the failure to adequately deal with Aboriginal rights to land was fundamental to the violence that followed."[67]
Soon after the colony was established, large numbers of sheep and cattle were brought overland from the eastern colonies. There were many instances of conflict between Aboriginal people and the drovers, with the former desiring the protection of the Country and the latter quick to shoot to protect themselves and their flocks. One expedition leader (Buchanan) recorded at least six conflicts and the deaths of eight Aboriginal people.[68]
In 1840 the ship
The town of Port Lincoln, which was readily accessible by sea from Adelaide, became an early new settlement. A small number of shepherds began to steal land that was home to a large Aboriginal population. Deaths on both sides occurred and settlers demanded better protection.[64] Police and soldiers were sent to the Eyre Peninsula but were often ineffective due to the size of the area and the number of isolated settlements. By the mid-1840s, after conflicts sometimes involving large numbers of Aboriginal people, the greater lethality of the white people's weapons had an effect. Several alleged leaders of attacks by Aboriginal people were tried and executed in Adelaide.[69]
The experience of the Port Lincoln settlement on the Eyre Peninsula was repeated in the South East of the state and in the north as settlers encroached on the Aboriginal population. The government attempted to apply the sentiments of the state's proclamation, but the contradictions between these sentiments and the dispossession that the settlement involved made conflict inevitable.
Victoria
Fighting also took place in early pre-separation
In 1833–34, the battle for rights to a beached whale between whalers and people of the Gunditjmara nation resulted in the Convincing Ground massacre near Portland, Victoria.
The 1836 Mount Cottrell massacre was a reprisal for the killing of a prominent Van Diemen's Land squatter Charles Franks who squatted on land west of the Melbourne's fledgling settlement.
A clash at
In 1839 the reprisal raid against Aboriginal resistance in central Victoria resulted in the Campaspe Plains massacre.
The Indigenous groups in Victoria concentrated on economic warfare, killing tens of thousands of sheep. Large numbers of British settlers arrived in Victoria during the 1840s and rapidly outnumbered the Indigenous population.
From 1840, the
In 1842, white settlers from the Port Fairy area wrote a letter to the Charles Latrobe requesting the government improve security from "outrages committed by natives" and listing many incidents of conflict and economic warfare. An excerpt of the letter printed on 10 June:
We, the undersigned, settlers, and inhabitants of the district of Port Fairy, beg respectfully to represent to your Honor the great and increasing want of security to life and property which exists here at present, in consequence of the absence of any protection against the natives. Their number, their ferocity, and their cunning render them peculiarly formidable, and the outrages of which they are daily and nightly guilty, and which they accomplish generally with impunity and success, may, we fear, lead to a still more distressing state of things, unless some measures, prompt and effective, be immediately taken to prevent matters coming to that unhappy crisis.[70]
In the late 1840s, frontier conflict continued in the
Queensland
The frontier wars were particularly bloody and bitter in Queensland, owing to its comparatively large Indigenous population. This point is emphasised in a 2011 study by Ørsted-Jensen, which by use of two different sources calculated that colonial Queensland must have accounted for upwards of one-third and close to forty percent of the Indigenous population of the pre-contact Australian continent.[72]
Queensland represents the single bloodiest colonial frontier in Australia.[73][74] Thus the records of Queensland document the most frequent reports of shootings and massacres of Indigenous people, the three deadliest massacres on white settlers, the most disreputable frontier police force, and the highest number of white victims to frontier violence on record in any Australian colony.[75] In 2009 professor Raymond Evans calculated the Indigenous fatalities caused by the Queensland Native Police Force alone as no less than 24,000.[76] In July 2014, Evans, in cooperation with the Danish historian Robert Ørsted-Jensen, presented the first-ever attempt to use statistical modeling and a database covering no less than 644 collisions gathered from primary sources, and ended up with total fatalities suffered during Queensland's frontier wars being no less than 66,680—with Aboriginal fatalities alone comprising no less than 65,180[77]—whereas the hitherto commonly accepted minimum overall continental deaths had previously been 20,000.[78][79] The 66,680 covers Native Police and settler-inflicted fatalities on Aboriginal people, but also a calculated estimate for Aboriginal inflicted casualties on whites settlers and their associates. The continental death toll of Europeans and associates has previously been roughly estimated as between 2,000 and 2,500, yet there is now evidence that Queensland alone accounted for an estimated 1,500 of these fatal frontier casualties.[3][80]
The European settlement of what is now Queensland commenced as the Moreton Bay penal settlement from September 1824. It was initially located at Redcliffe but moved south to Brisbane River a year later. Free settlement began in 1838, with settlement rapidly expanding in a great rush to take up the surrounding land in the
Queensland's Native Police Force was formed by the Government of New South Wales in 1848, under the well-connected Commandant
Major massacres
The largest reasonably well-documented massacres in southeast Queensland were the Kilcoy and Whiteside poisonings, each of which was said to have taken up to 70 Aboriginal lives by use of a gift of flour laced with
In 1869 the
Raids conducted by the
The conflict in Queensland was the bloodiest in the history of
Some sources have characterised these events as genocide.[91][92][93][94][95][96]
Northern Territory
The British made three early attempts to establish military outposts in northern Australia. The initial settlement at Fort Dundas on Melville Island was established in 1824 but was abandoned in 1829 due to attacks from the local Tiwi people. Some fighting also took place near Fort Wellington on the Cobourg Peninsula between its establishment in 1827 and abandonment in 1829. The third British settlement, Fort Victoria, was also established on the Cobourg Peninsula in 1838 but was abandoned in 1849.[48]
The final battles took place in the Northern Territory. A permanent settlement was established at modern-day Darwin in 1869 and attempts by pastoralists to occupy Indigenous land led to conflict.[62] This fighting continued into the 20th century, and was driven by reprisals against European deaths and the pastoralists' desire to secure the land they had stolen from Indigenous people. At least 31 Indigenous men were killed by police in the Coniston massacre in 1928 and further reprisal expeditions were conducted in 1932 and 1933.[97]
Historiography
Armed resistance to British invasion was generally given little attention by historians until the 1970s, and was not regarded as a "war". In 1968
Between 2000 and 2002 Keith Windschuttle published a series of articles in the magazine Quadrant and the book The Fabrication of Aboriginal History. These works argued that there had not been prolonged frontier warfare in Australia, and that historians had in some instances fabricated evidence of fighting. Windschuttle's claims led to the so-called "history wars" in which historians debated the extent of the conflict between Indigenous Australians and European settlers.[62]
The frontier wars are not commemorated at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. The Memorial argues that the Australian frontier fighting is outside its charter as it did not involve Australian military forces. This position is supported by the Returned and Services League of Australia but is opposed by many historians, including Geoffrey Blainey, Gordon Briscoe, John Coates, John Connor, Ken Inglis, Michael McKernan and Peter Stanley. These historians argue that the fighting should be commemorated at the Memorial as it involved large numbers of Indigenous Australians and paramilitary Australian units.[99] In September 2022, after the premiere of the SBS documentary series The Australian Wars, the War Memorial's outgoing chair, former government minister Brendan Nelson announced the Memorial's governing council would work towards a "much broader, a much deeper depiction and presentation of the violence committed against Indigenous people, initially by British, then by pastoralists, then by police, and then by Aboriginal militia".[100] In response to the announcement, filmmaker Rachel Perkins said, "In the making of our series, we worked closely with the War Memorial ... [but] I never saw this coming. I thought, 'Maybe in a generation'... but not right now ... It is a watershed moment in Australian history. It can't be underestimated, the change that this heralds."[101]
See also
- Gulf Country#History
- Historical Records of Australia, publications by the Library Committee of the Commonwealth Parliament
- List of massacres of Indigenous Australians
- List of conflicts in Australia
Aboriginal Australian warriors
- Multuggerah, Ugarapu warrior in Queensland
- Musquito, Gai-Mariagal warrior in Tasmania
- Pemulwuy, Bidjigal warrior in NSW
- Tarenorerer, also known as Walyer, Waloa or Walloa, a rebel leader in Tasmania
- Tedbury, Dharug warrrio in NSW
- Tunnerminnerwait, Parperloihener resistance fighter in Tasmania
- Windradyne, Wiradjuri warrior and resistance leader, NSW
Comparable events in other countries
- Arauco War, conflict between Spanish and Mapuche people in Chile
- Conquest of the Desert, Argentine military campaign
- Anglo-Zulu war; comparable events in South Africa
- Russian conquest of the Caucasus; comparable events in Russia
Footnotes
- ^ Not to be confused with the 1915 Mistake Creek massacre in Western Australia.
Citations
- ^ Coates (2006), p. 12.
- ^ Connor (2002), p. xii.
- ^ a b Grey (2008), p. 39.
- ^ Reynolds (2021), pp. 191–192.
- ^ Connor (2002), pp. xi–xii.
- ^ Williams 1997, p. 95.
- ^ a b Macintyre (1999), p. 34.
- ^ Knop (2002), p. 128.
- ^ Macintyre 1999, p. 39[2020 edition]
- ISBN 0851157440.
- ^ Macintyre (1999), p. 30.
- ^ Broome (1988), p. 93.
- ^ "Map of Aboriginal Australia " Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet". ecu.edu.au. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
- ^ Ørsted-Jensen 2011, pp. 6–15.
- ^ Statistics compiled by Ørsted-Jensen 2011, pp. 10–11 & 15. Column one is the distribution percentage calculated on the estimates gathered and publicized in 1930 (Official Year Book of the Commonwealth of Australia XXIII, 1930, pp 672, 687–696) by the social anthropologist Alfred Radcliffe-Brown. The percentage in column two was calculated on the basis of N.G. Butlin: Our Original Aggression and "others", by M. D. Prentis for his book A Study in Black and White (2 revised edition, Redfern NSW 1988, page 41). Column three, however, is calculated on the basis of the "Aboriginal Australia" map, published by the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AIATSIS), Canberra 1994.
- ^ Statistics compiled by Ørsted-Jensen 2011, pp. 10–11 & 15, see more in ref above.
- ^ Statistics compiled by Ørsted-Jensen 2011, pp. 15. The figures and percentage in column two was calculated on the basis of N.G. Butlin: Our Original Aggression and "others", by M. D. Prentis for his book A Study in Black and White (2 revised edition, Redfern NSW 1988, page 41).
- ^ Butlin (1983).
- ^ Dennis et al. (1995), p. 11.
- ^ Connor (2002), pp. 2–3.
- ^ Connor (2002), pp. 3–4.
- ^ a b c Connor (2002), p. 4.
- ^ Connor (2002), pp. 5–8.
- ^ Connor (2002), pp. 4–5.
- ^ Connor (2002), pp. 8–12.
- ^ Connor (2002), pp. 12–13.
- ^ Broome (1988), p. 94.
- ^ Macintyre (1999), p. 33.
- ^ Connor (2002), pp. 31–33.
- ^ ISSN 1833-7538. Retrieved 12 July 2009.
- ^ Connor (2002), pp. 33–34.
- ^ a b Dennis et al. (1995), p. 9.
- ^ a b Dennis et al. (1995), p. 12.
- ^ Grey (1999), p. 31.
- ^ Dennis et al. (1995), p. 5.
- ^ Grey (1999), p. 30.
- ^ Dennis et al. (1995), pp. 12–13.
- ^ Dennis et al. (1995), pp. 7–8.
- ^ Macintyre (1999), p. 62.
- ^ Blainey (2003), p. 313.
- ISBN 0522846939.
- ^ Murray, Tom; Collins, Allan (2004). "Dhakiyarr vs the King". Film Australia. Archived from the original on 14 August 2014.
- ^ Tuckiar v The King [1934] HCA 49, (1934) 52 CLR 335, High Court.
- ISSN 1833-7538. Retrieved 29 July 2014.
- ^ Flannery, Tim (1998). The Explorers. Text Publishing.
- ^ "The Wave Hill 'walk-off' – Fact sheet 224". National Archives of Australia. Archived from the original on 21 December 2010. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
- ^ Macintyre (1999), p. 38.
- ^ a b c d e f g Connor (2008), p. 220.
- ^ "Text of Proclamation of Martial Law". National Library of Australia.
- ^ "Text of Proclamation ending Martial Law". National Library of Australia.
- ^ "Bells Falls Gorge – virtual tour". National Museum of Australia. Archived from the original on 2 February 2012. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
- ^ Sir Thomas Brisbane to Earl Bathurst, Despatch No.18 per ship Mangles,Government House, N.S. Wales, 31 December 1824.[1]
- ^ Connor (2008), p. 62.
- ^ Broome (1988), p. 101.
- ^ "Governor Arthur's proclamation". National Treasures from Australia's Great Libraries. National Library of Australia. Archived from the original on 28 October 2010. Retrieved 5 November 2010.
- ^ "Governor Daveys Proclamation to the Aborigines". Manuscripts, Oral History & Pictures. State Library of New South Wales. 2008. Retrieved 19 June 2009.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Broome (1988), p. 96.
- ISSN 1833-7538. Retrieved 4 November 2008.
- ^ a b c Stirling, Ros. "Wonnerup: a chronicle of the south-west". Australian Heritage magazine. Archived from the original on 25 May 2011. Retrieved 21 April 2011.
- The Perth Gazette and Western Australian Journal. National Library of Australia. 13 March 1841. p. 3. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
- The Perth Gazette and Western Australian Journal. National Library of Australia. 13 March 1841. p. 3. Retrieved 23 April 2011. However, according to Warren Bert Kimberly's History of West Australia (1897), relying on local memories: "The black men were killed by dozens, and their corpses lined the route of march of the avengers. ... On the sand patch near Mininup, skeletons and skulls of natives reported to have been killed in 1841 are still to be found. ... Surviving natives held the place in such terror that they would not go near to give the burial of the corpses. Even now natives refuse to disturb the bones.":. Melbourne: F. W. Niven. 1897. p. 116. Kimberly gives no more precise number. More recent sources quote a number of 250 to 300, though none of these appear to be supported anywhere other than the oral history of unknown origin.
- ^ a b c d e f Connor (2008), p. 221.
- ^ Broome (1988), pp. 108–109.
- ^ a b c Foster & Nettlebeck (2012), p. 21.
- ^ Foster & Nettlebeck (2012), p. 24.
- ^ Foster & Nettlebeck (2012), p. 22.
- ^ a b Foster & Nettlebeck (2012), p. 25.
- ^ Foster & Nettlebeck (2012), p. 34.
- ^ Foster & Nettlebeck (2012), p. 42.
- ^ "The settlers and the blacks of Port Fairy". Southern Australian. 10 June 1842. Retrieved 4 December 2018 – via Trove, National Library of Australia.
- ^ Broome (1988), pp. 102–103.
- ^ Ørsted-Jensen (2011), pp. 10–11.
- . Retrieved 11 September 2019.
- ^ Loos, Noel (1976). Aboriginal-European relations in North Queensland, 1861–1897 (PhD). James Cook University. Retrieved 11 September 2019.
- ^ Ørsted-Jensen (2011).
- ^ Evans, Raymond (October 2011) The country has another past: Queensland and the History Wars, in Passionate Histories: Myth, memory, and Indigenous Australia Aboriginal History Monograph 21. Edited by Frances Peters-Little, Ann Curthoys and John Docker (Peters-Little, Curthoys & Docker 2011)
- ^ a b Evans, Raymond & Ørsted–Jensen, Robert: 'I Cannot Say the Numbers that Were Killed': Assessing Violent Mortality on the Queensland Frontier" (paper at AHA 9 July 2014 at University of Queensland) publisher Social Science Research Network
- ^ Reynolds (1982), pp. 121–127.
- ^ Reynolds (1987), p. 53.
- ^ Reynolds (1982), pp. 121–127; Reynolds (1987), p. 53; Ørsted-Jensen (2011), pp. 16–20 and Appendix A: Listing the Death Toll of the Invader
- ^ Broome (1988), p. 102.
- ^ Kerkhove, Ray (19 August 2017). "Battle of One Tree Hill and Its Aftermath". Retrieved 5 August 2020. Note: Dr Ray Kerkhove, owner of this site, is a reputable historian. See here and here.
- ^ Marr, David (14 September 2019). "Battle of One Tree Hill: remembering an Indigenous victory and a warrior who routed the whites". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
- ^ Skinner (1975), p. 26.
- Carl Lumholtz Among Cannibals (London 1889) page 58–59; See also Bottoms 2013, pp. 172–174.
- ^ Port Denison Times, 1 May 1869, page 2g and the Empire (Sydney) 25 May 1869, page 2.
- ^ Queenslander, 8 March 1879, page 313d
- ^ Daily News (formerly Queensland Patriot), 1 January 1879, p2f.
- ^ Coulthard-Clark (2001), pp. 51–52.
- ^ Queensland State Archives A/49714 no 6449 of 1884 (report); QPG re 13 July 1884, Vol 21:213; 21 July 1884 – COL/A395/84/5070; Q 16 August 1884, p253; 20 August 1884 Inquest JUS/N108/84/415; POL/?/84/6449; 15 Queensland Figaro November 1884 and Queensland State Archives A/49714, letter 9436 of 1889.
- ^ Gibbons, Ray. "The Partial Case for Queensland Genocide".
- ISSN 2201-7275.
- .
- PMID 19514155.
- S2CID 145745263. Retrieved 8 March 2022.
- S2CID 147512803. Retrieved 8 March 2022.
- ^ Broome (1988), p. 109.
- ^ "The Aboriginal Memorial". National Gallery of Australia. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
- The 7:30 Report. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archivedfrom the original on 26 May 2009. Retrieved 18 April 2009.
- ^ Karvelas, Patricia (2 October 2022). "The Australian War Memorial's promise of a 'deeper depiction' of the frontier wars signals an important new chapter". ABC. Retrieved 22 January 2023.
- ^ Butler, Dan (30 September 2022). "Rachel Perkins welcomes War Memorial's expansion of frontier conflicts exhibits". NITV. Retrieved 22 January 2023.
References
- Blainey, Geoffrey (2003). A Short History of the World. Lanham: Ivan R. Dee. ISBN 1461709865.
- Bottoms, Timothy (2013). Conspiracy of Silence: Queensland's frontier killing times. Sydney: ISBN 978-1-74331-382-4.
- ISBN 0-642-99502-8.
- ISBN 0868612235.
- Coates, John (2006). An Atlas of Australia's Wars. Melbourne: ISBN 0-19-555914-2.
- Connor, John (2002). The Australian frontier wars, 1788–1838. Sydney: ISBN 0-86840-756-9.
- Connor, John (2008). "Frontier Wars". In Dennis, Peter; et al. (eds.). The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History (Second ed.). Melbourne: ISBN 978-0-19-551784-2.
- Coulthard-Clark, Chris D. (2001). The Encyclopedia of Australia's Battles (Second ed.). Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1865086347.
- Dennis, Peter; Grey, Jeffrey; Morris, Ewan; Prior, Robin (1995). The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History. Melbourne: ISBN 0-19-553227-9.
- Evans, Raymond; Ørsted–Jensen, Robert (9 July 2014). I Cannot Say the Numbers that Were Killed': Assessing Violent Mortality on the Queensland Frontier. AHA. University of Queensland: Social Science Research Network (SSRN). (abstract)
- Foster, Robert; Nettlebeck, Amanda (2012). Out of the Silence: the history and memory of South Australia's frontier wars. Adelaide: Wakefield Press. ISBN 9781743055823.
- Grey, Jeffrey (1999). A Military History of Australia (Second ed.). Port Melbourne: ISBN 0-521-64483-6.
- Grey, Jeffrey (2008). A Military History of Australia (Third ed.). Port Melbourne: ISBN 978-0-521-69791-0.
- Knop, Karen (May 2002). Diversity and Self-Determination in International Law. Cambridge Studies in International and Comparative Law. Cambridge, England: ISBN 978-0-521-78178-7. Retrieved 9 January 2013.
- ISBN 0-521-62577-7.
- Ørsted-Jensen, Robert (2011). Frontier History Revisited – Queensland and the 'History War'. Cooparoo, Brisbane, Qld: Lux Mundi Publishing. ISBN 9781466386822.
- Peters-Little, Frances; Curthoys, Ann; Docker, John, eds. (3 October 2011). Passionate Histories: Myth, memory and Indigenous Australia. Aboriginal History Monograph. Vol. 21. ANU-Press. ISBN 978-1-921666-64-3. (Estimates of 19th century Aboriginal Frontier death toll, see "Part One, Massacres" chapter 1, The Country Has Another Past: Queensland and the History Wars by Raymond Evans).
- ISBN 0140224750.
- Reynolds, Henry (1987). Frontier: Aborigines, Settlers and Land. Sydney: ISBN 0-04-994005-8.
- Reynolds, Henry (2021). Truth-Telling: History, Sovereignty and the Uluru Statement. Sydney: NewSouth Publishing. ISBN 9781742236940.
- Skinner, Leslie E. (1975). Police of the Pastoral Frontier: Native Police, 1849–1859. St. Lucia, Queensland: ISBN 0702209775.
- Williams, Glyndwr, ed. (1997). Captain Cook's Voyages 1768–1779. London: Folio Society. OCLC 38549967.
Further reading
- "Australian Frontier Conflicts 1788-1940s". Australian Frontier Wars 1788-1940.
- Booth, Andrea (18 April 2016). "What are the Frontier Wars?". NITV (SBS). Explainer.
- Clark, Ian D.; Cahir, Fred; Wilkie, Benjamin; Tout, Dan; Clark, Jidah (27 May 2022). "Aboriginal Use of Fire as a Weapon in Colonial Victoria: A Preliminary Analysis". S2CID 249139781.
- Clayton-Dixon, Callum (2019). Surviving New England: a history of Aboriginal resistance & resilience through the first forty years of the colonial apocalypse.
- Connor, John (October 2017). "Climate, Environment and Australian Frontier Wars: New South Wales 1788-1841". The Journal of Military History. 81 (4): 985–1006.
- Foster, Robert; Hosking, Rick; Nettleback, Amanda (2001). Fatal Collisions: The South Australian Frontier and the Violence of Memory. Kent Town: Wakefield Press. ISBN 1-86254-533-2.
- Gapps, Stephen (2018). The Sydney Wars: Conflict in the early colony, 1788-1817. Sydney: NewSouth. ISBN 9781742232140.
- Gapps, Stephen (2021). Gudyarra: The First Wiradyuri War of Resistance - The Bathurst War, 1822 - 1824. Sydney: NewSouth. ISBN 9781742236711.
- ISBN 1-86448-672-4.
- Loos, Noel A. (1982). Invasion And Resistance: Aboriginal-European Relations On The North Queensland Frontier 1861–1897. Canberra, Australia; Miami, Fl, USA: ISBN 0-7081-1521-7.
- Reynolds, Henry (2013). ISBN 9781742233925.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - Smith, Aaron (26 May 2018). "The 'forgotten people': When death came to the Torres Strait". CNN.
- ISBN 0-86417-091-2.