Battle of Caishi
Battle of Caishi | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Part of the Jin–Song Wars | |||||||
Song dynasty river ship armed with a trebuchet catapult on its top deck, from the Wujing Zongyao | |||||||
| |||||||
Belligerents | |||||||
Jin dynasty |
Southern Song dynasty | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Wanyan Liang † |
Chen Kangbo (prime minister / navy) Yu Yunwen (army commander) | ||||||
Strength | |||||||
40,000[1] | 18,000[1] | ||||||
The Battle of Caishi (Chinese: 采石之戰) was a major naval engagement of the Jin–Song Wars of China that took place on November 26–27, 1161. It ended with a decisive Song victory, aided by their use of gunpowder weapons.
Soldiers under the command of
Overview
Starting in 1125, the Jin had conquered former Song territories north of the Huai River. In 1142, a peace treaty settled the border between the two states, putting the Jin in control of northern China and the Song in control of the south. In 1150, Wanyan Liang became emperor and planned to unite northern and southern China under a single emperor. In 1158, he asserted that the Song had violated the 1142 treaty, a pretext for declaring war on the Song. He prepared for the war in the following year. He instituted a draft where all able-bodied men were required to enlist. The draft was unpopular, precipitating revolts that were later suppressed. The Jin army left the capital of Kaifeng on October 15 1161, and pushed through from the Huai to the Yangzi.
The Song were fortified along the Yangzi front. Wanyan Liang planned to cross the river at Caishi (modern day Ma'anshan), south of modern-day Nanjing. He embarked from the shore of the Yangzi on November 26, and clashed with Song forces led by Yu Yunwen and Chen Kangbo in a naval engagement. Wanyan Liang lost the battle and retreated to Yangzhou.
Wanyan Liang was assassinated in a military camp by his own soldiers shortly after the battle at Caishi. A military coup had taken place in the Jin court while Wanyan Liang was absent, enthroning Emperor Shizong as the new emperor. A peace treaty signed in 1165 ended the conflict between Song and Jin.
At Caishi, the Song led an army of 18,000, whereas Wanyan Liang reportedly led an army of 600,000 Jin soldiers. Over the course of the battle, many Jin soldiers deserted—bringing down the total Jin force—as they realized their northern steppe cavalry was inadequate for naval battles on rivers and lakes. The Song won mainly through its superior navy, gunpowder, and firearms. The victory boosted the morale of the Song infantry and pushed back the southern advance of the Jin army.[2]
Background
Jin-Liao-Song
The Song (960–1276) was a Han-led dynasty that ruled over Southeast China.[3] To their north was the Jin dynasty, a Jurchen-Han mixed dynasty that ruled over Northeast China. The Jin were led by the Jurchens, a confederation of semi-agrarian tribes from Manchuria in northeast China, though many northern Han nobles were also part of the Jin.[4] The Liao were a Khitan-led dynasty covering parts of Mongolia, West China, and Central Asia. Like the Jin, the Liao also adopted Han culture, spoke Chinese, and practiced Buddhism.
The Song and Jin had once been military allies. However, in 1114, the Jurchen, unified under the rule of Wanyan Aguda, plotted a revolt against their former overlords: the Khitan-led Liao dynasty.[4] In 1115, Aguda established the Jin dynasty and adopted the title of emperor.[5] The Jin negotiated a joint attack with the Song against the Khitans. They planned the attack for 1121 and then rescheduled to 1122.[6]
In 1122, the Jin captured the Khitan Supreme and Western Capitals. The Song tried to capture the Liao Southern Capital of Yan (modern Beijing), but it fell later that year to the Jin.[7] Negotiations between the Song and Jin produced a treaty in 1123, but bilateral relations deteriorated because of territorial disputes over the Sixteen Prefectures.[8][7] In 1125, the Jin invaded the Song.[9][4]
Start of Jin-Song wars
By 1127, Jin had unified most of northern China and besieged the Song capital of
The move of the Song capital south to Hangzhou signalled the transition from the
The Jin persisted with their advance into the remaining Song territories south of the Yangzi.[18] They faced an insurgency of Song loyalists in the north, the deaths of some important leaders, and military offensives by Song generals like Yue Fei. The Jin created the puppet government of Da Qi (大齊) to serve as a buffer state between Song and Jin, but Qi failed to defeat the Song.[19] The Jin abolished Qi in 1137. As the Jin gave up advancing south, diplomatic talks for a peace treaty resumed.[20]
Signed in 1142, the Treaty of Shaoxing established the boundary between the two states along the Huai River, which runs north of the Yangzi.[21][4] The treaty forbade the Song from purchasing horses from the Jin, but smuggling continued in the border markets.[22] The relations between the two states were mostly peaceful from 1142 to 1161, the year Wanyan Liang went to war.[23]
Jin preparations for Caishi
Wanyan Liang was crowned Jin emperor in 1150 after killing his cousin and predecessor,
Plans for a war against the Southern Song began in 1158. That year, Wanyan Liang claimed that the Song had broken the 1142 treaty that banned them from acquiring horses. In 1159, he began building up his army in preparation for an invasion. He acquired weapons, which he stored in Beijing, as well as horses allegedly numbering 560,000.[27] Wanyan Liang understood that an invasion of the Song would require a lot of men. He ensured that Han soldiers were drafted into the war effort alongside Jurchen soldiers. The recruitment drive lasted until 1161.[27]
Naval confrontations were likely because the Jin planned on traveling by river. Ships were seized for the war and 30,000 of the recruits were assigned to the Jin fleet.[29] Wanyan Liang authorized the building of ships for the war in March 1159, under the auspices of the Ministry of War. Construction began in the Tong (通) prefecture near Beijing.[30] Wanyan Liang appointed himself head of the army and took personal command of the Jin forces.[31] The draft was unpopular. Several revolts erupted against it, many of them in the Jin provinces neighboring the Song.[27] But Wanyan Liang allowed no dissent; he had his stepmother executed after hearing that she was critical of the war effort.[31]
In order to eliminate any challenge to his legitimacy as emperor of a united China, Wanyan Liang ordered the execution of all male members of the Song and Liao royal families residing in Jin territory.
Regardless, Wanyan Liang was forced to divert resources and men away from the war effort to suppress the rebellion.[31]
Song preparations for Caishi
Diplomatic exchanges between the Song and Jin did not stop during the period preceding the war. The
Wanyan Liang's army built its encampment near Yangzhou on the northern side of the Yangzi River.[2] The Jin advance had been slowed by Song victories in the west, where the Song captured several prefectures from the Jin. Wanyan Liang commanded his forces to cross the Yangzi at Caishi,[31] south of modern Nanjing.[33] A naval battle between Jin and Song took place on November 26 and 27, 1161.[31]
The Song strategy was planned by Chen Kangbo (陈康伯), prime minister and naval leader of the Song dynasty. Chen led a naval regiment of his own, dispatching general Yu Yunwen (a scholar-official), his lieutenants Dai Gao, Jian Kang, Shi Zhun, and others to lead the rest of the army.[33] Yu, who was a Drafting Official of the Secretariat (Chinese: 中書舍人; pinyin: zhongshu sheren), was at Caishi to distribute awards to Song soldiers who had been selected for their outstanding service. It was by chance that his visit coincided with Wanyan Liang's campaign.[34] When Yu first arrived, there were various scattered Song forces at Caishi, so Yu took command and built a cohesive unit.[35]
The Jin performed a ritual sacrifice of horses a day before the battle (
The Song military response was stronger than Wanyan Liang had anticipated.
One [the middle squadron] was stationed in midstream. These carried our elite troops to meet the attack. The remaining two squadrons were hidden in creeks to serve as reserve. Barely was the arrangement completed when suddenly we could hear the shouts of the Tatar hordes. The Tatar chieftain, holding a small red flag, ordered several hundred of his boats to cross the river. In a short time, seven boats reached the south bank. The Tatars leaped ashore and fought with the government troops. Your minister walk[ed] back and forth in our ranks, again and again exhorted our men about their great duty and also promising them rewards. Our men fought desperately, and after all the enemy [ashore] had been killed or taken prisoner, the battle continued on the river. Our large warships then attacked and sank many of the Tatar boats. Enemy troops who were drowned or killed are estimated to be as many as ten thousand. As darkness came, the sound of drums gradually quieted, and the Tatars fled in their remaining boats.[41]
— Yu Yunwen describing the battle at Caishi
Another account tells of General Chen Lugong (Chen Kangbo)「陈鲁公(陈康伯)采石」and how he also led naval regiments to defeat the Jin and defend the Song.
Casualties
Estimates for the number of soldiers and casualties at the battle vary widely. A Song source reports that there were 18,000 Song soldiers stationed in Caishi. One document claims that 400,000-600,000 Jin soldiers were present at the battle. Herbert Franke argues that the Song had only 120,000 soldiers fighting on the entire front[2] and that the half million figure could have referred to the number of soldiers that the Jin army had before crossing the Huai River toward the Yangzi. The desertions and casualties from suppressing revolts while advancing southward would have shrunk that number by the time the Jin reached the Yangzi.[34]
The
An account of the Song's technological capabilities is given in the Hai Qiu Fu (《海鳅赋》"Rhapsodic Ode on the Sea Eel Paddle Wheel Warships") by Yang Wanli:
The men inside them paddled fast on the treadmills, and the ships glided forwards as though they were flying, yet no one was visible on board. The enemy thought that they were made of paper. Then all of a sudden a thunderclap bomb was let off. It was made with paper (carton) and filled with lime and
sulphur. (Launched from trebuchets) these thunderclap bombs came dropping down from the air, and upon meeting the water exploded with a noise like thunder, the sulphur bursting into flames. The carton case rebounded and broke, scattering the lime to form a smoky fog, which blinded the eyes of men and horses so that they could see nothing. Our ships then went forward to attack theirs, and their men and horses were all drowned, so that they were utterly defeated.[39][42]
There were up to 340 ships in the Song fleet during the battle of Caishi in 1161.
The Jin conscripted thousands of blacksmiths to build the armor and weaponry of the fleet, and workers to dig out the canal necessary for transporting the ships from Tong to the Grand Canal through the northern port of Zhigu (直沽), modern
The battle is significant in the technological history of the Song navy. The technological advances of the Song navy ensured its access to the East China Sea, where they competed with the military forces of Jin and Mongol rivals. Although huopao launched by the ship-mounted trebuchets had been invented decades earlier, the bombs did not become mandatory on Song warships until 1129. Paddle-wheel ships operated with treadmills were constructed continuously in various sizes between 1132 and 1183. The engineer Gao Xuan devised a ship outfitted with up to eleven paddle wheels on each side, and Qin Shifu, another engineer, designed the iron plating for armoring the ships in 1203. All these advances supported a rapid increase in the size of the force; according to Joseph Needham, "From a total of 11 squadrons and 3,000 men [the Song navy] rose in one century to 20 squadrons totalling 52,000 men".[43]
Aftermath
Traditional Chinese historiography celebrated the battle of Caishi as an important victory for the Song. Caishi was held in the same esteem as the
The Song possessed multiple advantages. The Song had larger ships and ample time to prepare, while the Jin army gathered supplies and ships for the crossing. It was also impossible for the Jin to use cavalry, the most important asset of the Jurchen military, during a naval engagement.[2]
The battle was not solely responsible for devastating Wanyan Liang's military campaign. His own failings also led to his downfall.[2] Wanyan Liang's generals detested him, and his relationship with his men had deteriorated over the course of the war as the Jin were losing. There was a widespread disapproval of his reign in the empire, and Wanyan Liang's policies had alienated Jurchens, Khitans, and Han alike. Disaffected officers conspired to kill him, and he was assassinated on 1161 December 15. Emperor Shizong succeeded Wanyan Liang as ruler of the Jin. He had been enthroned weeks before the assassination, in a military coup that installed him as emperor while Wanyan Liang was absent from the court.[47] Shizong eventually rescinded many of Wanyan Liang's policies.[48]
The victory boosted the morale of the Song soldiers, improving confidence in the government and bolstering Song stability.[31][49] The Jin gave up their ambitions of pushing south and reunifying China under their rule.[49] The Jin army withdrew in 1162, and diplomatic relations between the two states resumed.[47]
Military clashes continued in Huainan and Sichuan, but Jin incursions after Caishi had no intent of reaching the Yangzi. The Jin had discovered that southern China's many lakes and rivers impeded their cavalry.[36] After losing the battle, they signed a peace treaty with the Song in 1165, ending hostilities. The Huai River border remained the same.[48]
See also
- Battle of Tangdao
- Gunpowder warfare
- History of China
- Jiao Yu
- Military history of China (pre-1911)
- Naval history of China
- Naval warfare
Notes
- ^ a b Lo 2012, p. 164.
- ^ a b c d e f Franke 1994, p. 242.
- ^ Ebrey 2010, p. 136.
- ^ a b c d e f Holcombe 2011, p. 129.
- ^ Franke 1994, p. 221.
- ^ Mote 1999, p. 209.
- ^ a b c Franke 1994, p. 225.
- ^ Mote 1999, pp. 209–210.
- ^ Mote 1999, p. 196.
- ^ Franke 1994, pp. 227–229.
- ^ Franke 1994, p. 229.
- ^ Mote 1999, p. 292.
- ^ Mote 1999, p. 293.
- ^ Mote 1999, pp. 289–293.
- ^ Tao 2009, p. 654.
- ^ Mote 1999, p. 298.
- ^ Tao 2009, p. 655.
- ^ Franke 1994, p. 230.
- ^ Franke 1994, pp. 230–232.
- ^ Franke 1994, p. 232.
- ^ Franke 1994, p. 233.
- ^ Tao 2009, p. 684.
- ^ Franke 1994, p. 235.
- ^ Franke 1994, p. 239.
- ^ Franke 1994, pp. 239–240.
- ^ Tao 2002, p. 150.
- ^ a b c d e f Franke 1994, p. 240.
- ^ a b c Mote 1999, p. 235.
- ^ Franke 1994, pp. 240–241.
- ^ a b c Chan 1992, p. 657.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Franke 1994, p. 241.
- ^ a b c Tao 2009, p. 704.
- ^ a b c Tao 2002, p. 151.
- ^ a b c d e f Tao 2002, p. 152.
- ^ a b c Tao 2009, p. 706.
- ^ a b c d Tao 2009, p. 707.
- ^ a b Chan 1992, pp. 657–658.
- ^ a b c Turnbull 2002, p. 46.
- ^ a b c Needham 1987, p. 166.
- ^ Mote 1999, p. 233.
- ^ Lo 2012, p. 165.
- ^ Lo 2012, p. 167.
- ^ a b Needham 1971, p. 476.
- ^ Needham 1987, pp. 166–167.
- ^ Needham 1987, p. 165.
- ^ Chan 1992, p. 658.
- ^ a b Franke 1994, p. 243.
- ^ a b Franke 1994, p. 244.
- ^ a b Tao 2002, p. 155.
- ^ Tao 2009, pp. 707–709.
- ^ Tao 2009, pp. 708–709.
- ^ Tao 2009, p. 709.
References
- Chan, Hok-Lam (1992). "The Organization and Utilization of Labor Service Under The Jurchen Chin Dynasty". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 52 (2): 613–664. JSTOR 2719174.
- Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (2010) [1996]. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-12433-1.
- Franke, Herbert (1994). "The Chin dynasty". In ISBN 978-0-521-24331-5.
- Holcombe, Charles (2011). A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-51595-5.
- Lo, Jung-pang (2012), China as a Sea Power 1127–1368
- Mote, Frederick W. (1999). Imperial China: 900–1800. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01212-7.
- Needham, Joseph (1971). Science and Civilisation in China: Civil Engineering and Nautics, Volume 4 Part 3. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-07060-7.
- Needham, Joseph (1987). Science and Civilisation in China: Military technology: The Gunpowder Epic, Volume 5, Part 7. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-30358-3.
- Tao, Jing-shen (2002). "A Tyrant on the Yangtze: The Battle of Ts'ai-shih in 1161". In Marie Chan; Chia-lin Pao Tao; Jing-shen Tao (eds.). Excursions in Chinese Culture: Festschrift in Honor of William R. Schultz. Chinese University Press. pp. 149–158. ISBN 978-962-201-915-7.
- Tao, Jing-shen (2009). "The Move to the South and the Reign of Kao-tsung". In ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1. (hardcover)
- Turnbull, Stephen (2002). Fighting Ships of the Far East: China and Southeast Asia 202 BC – AD 1419. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78200-017-4.
Further reading
- Partington, J. R. (1960). A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5954-0.