Behavioral epigenetics
Behavioral epigenetics is the field of study examining the role of
Epigenetic gene regulation involves changes other than to the sequence of DNA and includes changes to histones (proteins around which DNA is wrapped) and DNA methylation.[10][4][11] These epigenetic changes can influence the growth of neurons in the developing brain[12] as well as modify the activity of neurons in the adult brain.[13][14] Together, these epigenetic changes in neuron structure and function can have a marked influence on an organism's behavior.[1]
Background
In
Examples of mechanisms that produce such changes are
DNA methylation turns a gene "off" – it results in the inability of genetic information to be read from DNA; removing the methyl tag can turn the gene back "on".[19][20]
Histone modification changes the way that DNA is packaged into chromosomes. These changes impact how genes are expressed.[21]
Epigenetics has a strong influence on the development of an organism and can alter the expression of individual traits.[11] Epigenetic changes occur not only in the developing fetus, but also in individuals throughout the human life-span.[4][22] Because some epigenetic modifications can be passed from one generation to the next,[23] subsequent generations may be affected by the epigenetic changes that took place in the parents.[23]
Discovery
The first documented example of epigenetics affecting behavior was provided by
This pioneering work in rodents has been difficult to replicate in humans because of a general lack of availability of human brain tissue for measurement of epigenetic changes.[1]
Research into epigenetics in psychology
Anxiety and risk-taking
In a small clinical study in humans published in 2008,
Stress
Animal and human studies have found correlations between poor care during infancy and epigenetic changes that correlate with long-term impairments that result from neglect.[26][27][28]
Studies in rats have shown correlations between maternal care in terms of the parental licking of offspring and epigenetic changes.
In humans, a small clinical research study showed the relationship between prenatal exposure to maternal mood and genetic expression resulting in increased reactivity to stress in offspring.[4] Three groups of infants were examined: those born to mothers medicated for depression with serotonin reuptake inhibitors; those born to depressed mothers not being treated for depression; and those born to non-depressed mothers. Prenatal exposure to depressed/anxious mood was associated with increased DNA methylation at the glucocorticoid receptor gene and to increased HPA axis stress reactivity.[26] The findings were independent of whether the mothers were being pharmaceutically treated for depression.[26]
Recent research has also shown the relationship of methylation of the maternal glucocorticoid receptor and maternal neural activity in response to mother-infant interactions on video.[29] Longitudinal follow-up of those infants will be important to understand the impact of early caregiving in this high-risk population on child epigenetics and behavior.
Cognition
Learning and memory
A 2010 review discussed the role of DNA methylation in memory formation and storage, but the precise mechanisms involving neuronal function, memory, and methylation reversal remained unclear at the time.[30]
Further research investigated the molecular basis for long-term memory. By 2015 it had become clear that long-term memory requires gene transcription activation and de novo protein synthesis.[31] Long-term memory formation depends on both the activation of memory promoting genes and the inhibition of memory suppressor genes, and DNA methylation/DNA demethylation was found to be a major mechanism for achieving this dual regulation.[32]
Rats with a new, strong long-term memory due to contextual fear conditioning have reduced expression of about 1,000 genes and increased expression of about 500 genes in the hippocampus of the brain 24 hours after training, thus exhibiting modified expression of 9.17% of the rat hippocampal genome. Reduced gene expressions were associated with methylations of those genes and hypomethylation was found for genes involved in synaptic transmission and neuronal differentiation.[33]
Further research into long-term memory has shed light on the molecular mechanisms by which methylation is created or removed, as reviewed in 2022.
The double strand breaks occur at known memory-related immediate early genes (among other genes) in neurons after neuron activation.[36][35] These double-strand breaks allow the genes to be transcribed and then translated into active proteins.
One
DNMT3A2 is another immediate early gene whose expression in neurons can be induced by sustained synaptic activity.[38] DNMTs bind to DNA and methylate cytosines at particular locations in the genome. If this methylation is prevented by DNMT inhibitors, then memories do not form.[39] If DNMT3A2 is over-expressed in the hippocampus of young adult mice it converts a weak learning experience into long-term memory and also enhances fear memory formation.[32]
In another mechanism reviewed in 2022,[34] the messenger RNAs of many genes that had been subjected to methylation-controlled increases or decreases are transported by neural granules (messenger RNPs) to the dendritic spines. At these locations the messenger RNAs can be translated into the proteins that control signaling at neuronal synapses.
Studies in rodents have found that the environment exerts an influence on epigenetic changes related to
Psychopathology and mental health
Drug addiction
Signaling cascade in the nucleus accumbens that results in psychostimulant addiction |
Environmental and epigenetic influences seem to work together to increase the risk of addiction.[51] For example, environmental stress has been shown to increase the risk of substance abuse.[52] In an attempt to cope with stress, alcohol and drugs can be used as an escape.[53] Once substance abuse commences, however, epigenetic alterations may further exacerbate the biological and behavioural changes associated with addiction.[51]
Even short-term substance abuse can produce long-lasting epigenetic changes in the brain of rodents,[51] via DNA methylation and histone modification.[18] Epigenetic modifications have been observed in studies on rodents involving ethanol, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine and opiates.[4] Specifically, these epigenetic changes modify gene expression, which in turn increases the vulnerability of an individual to engage in repeated substance overdose in the future. In turn, increased substance abuse results in even greater epigenetic changes in various components of a rodent's reward system[51] (e.g., in the nucleus accumbens[54]). Hence, a cycle emerges whereby changes in areas of the reward system contribute to the long-lasting neural and behavioural changes associated with the increased likelihood of addiction, the maintenance of addiction and relapse.[51] In humans, alcohol consumption has been shown to produce epigenetic changes that contribute to the increased craving of alcohol. As such, epigenetic modifications may play a part in the progression from the controlled intake to the loss of control of alcohol consumption.[55] These alterations may be long-term, as is evidenced in smokers who still possess nicotine-related epigenetic changes ten years after cessation.[56] Therefore, epigenetic modifications[51] may account for some of the behavioural changes generally associated with addiction. These include: repetitive habits that increase the risk of disease, and personal and social problems; need for immediate gratification; high rates of relapse following treatment; and, the feeling of loss of control.[57]
Evidence for relevant epigenetic changes came from human studies involving alcohol,
Imprecise DNA repair can leave epigenetic scars
DNA damage is increased in the brain of rodents by administration of the addictive substances cocaine,[60] methamphetamine,[61][62] alcohol[63] and tobacco smoke.[64] When such DNA damages are repaired, imprecise DNA repair may lead to persistent alterations such as methylation of DNA or the acetylation or methylation of histones at the sites of repair.[65] These alterations may be epigenetic scars in the chromatin that contribute to the persistent epigenetic changes found in addiction.
Eating disorders and obesity
Epigenetic changes may help to facilitate the development and maintenance of
Epigenetic differences accumulating over the life-span may account for the incongruent differences in eating disorders observed in monozygotic twins. At
Schizophrenia
Epigenetic changes including hypomethylation of glutamatergic genes (i.e., NMDA-receptor-subunit gene
Population studies have established a strong association linking schizophrenia in children born to older fathers.
Bipolar disorder
Evidence for
Major depressive disorder
The causes of major depressive disorder (MDD) are poorly understood from a neuroscience perspective.[75] The epigenetic changes leading to changes in glucocorticoid receptor expression and its effect on the HPA stress system discussed above, have also been applied to attempts to understand MDD.[76]
Much of the work in animal models has focused on the indirect downregulation of
Psychopathy
Epigenetics may be relevant to aspects of psychopathic behaviour through methylation and histone modification.[80] These processes are heritable but can also be influenced by environmental factors such as smoking and abuse.[81] Epigenetics may be one of the mechanisms through which the environment can impact the expression of the genome.[82] Studies have also linked methylation of genes associated with nicotine and alcohol dependence in women, ADHD, and drug abuse.[83][84][85] It is probable that epigenetic regulation as well as methylation profiling will play an increasingly important role in the study of the play between the environment and genetics of psychopaths.[86]
Suicide
A study of the brains of 24 who died by suicide, 12 of whom had a history of child abuse and 12 who did not, found decreased levels of glucocorticoid receptor in victims of child abuse and associated epigenetic changes.[87]
Social insects
Several studies have indicated DNA cytosine methylation linked to the social behavior of insects, such as honeybees and ants. In honeybees, when nurse bee switched from her in-hive tasks to out foraging, cytosine methylation marks are changing. When a forager bee was reversed to do nurse duties, the cytosine methylation marks were also reversed.[88] Knocking down the DNMT3 in the larvae changed the worker to queen-like phenotype.[89] Queen and worker are two distinguish castes with different morphology, behavior, and physiology. Studies in DNMT3 silencing also indicated DNA methylation may regulate gene alternative splicing and pre-mRNA maturation.[90]
Limitations and future direction
Many researchers contribute information to the Human Epigenome Consortium.[91] The aim of future research is to reprogram epigenetic changes to help with addiction, mental illness, age related changes,[2] memory decline, and other issues.[1] However, the sheer volume of consortium-based data makes analysis difficult.[2] Most studies also focus on one gene.[92] In actuality, many genes and interactions between them likely contribute to individual differences in personality, behaviour and health.[93] As social scientists often work with many variables, determining the number of affected genes also poses methodological challenges. More collaboration between medical researchers, geneticists and social scientists has been advocated to increase knowledge in this field of study.[94]
Limited access to human brain tissue poses a challenge to conducting human research.[2] Not yet knowing if epigenetic changes in the blood and (non-brain) tissues parallel modifications in the brain, places even greater reliance on brain research.[91] Although some epigenetic studies have translated findings from animals to humans,[87] a some researchers caution about the extrapolation of animal studies to humans.[1] One view notes that when animal studies do not consider how the subcellular and cellular components, organs and the entire individual interact with the influences of the environment, results are too reductive to explain behaviour.[93]
Some researchers note that epigenetic perspectives will likely be incorporated into pharmacological treatments.[8] Others caution that more research is necessary as drugs are known to modify the activity of multiple genes and may, therefore, cause serious side effects.[1] However, the ultimate goal is to find patterns of epigenetic changes that can be targeted to treat mental illness, and reverse the effects of childhood stressors, for example. If such treatable patterns eventually become well-established, the inability to access brains in living humans to identify them poses an obstacle to pharmacological treatment.[91] Future research may also focus on epigenetic changes that mediate the impact of psychotherapy on personality and behaviour.[26]
Most epigenetic research is correlational; it merely establishes associations. More experimental research is necessary to help establish causation.[95] Lack of resources has also limited the number of intergenerational studies.[2] Therefore, advancing longitudinal[94] and multigenerational, experience-dependent studies will be critical to further understanding the role of epigenetics in psychology.[5]
See also
- Behavioral genetics
- Behavioral neuroscience
- Epigenetics of anxiety and stress-related disorders
- Evolutionary neuroscience
- Neuroscience
- Personality psychology
References
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[Psychostimulants] increase cAMP levels in striatum, which activates protein kinase A (PKA) and leads to phosphorylation of its targets. This includes the cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), the phosphorylation of which induces its association with the histone acetyltransferase, CREB binding protein (CBP) to acetylate histones and facilitate gene activation. This is known to occur on many genes including fosB and c-fos in response to psychostimulant exposure. ΔFosB is also upregulated by chronic psychostimulant treatments, and is known to activate certain genes (eg, cdk5) and repress others (eg, c-fos) where it recruits HDAC1 as a corepressor. ... Chronic exposure to psychostimulants increases glutamatergic [signaling] from the prefrontal cortex to the NAc. Glutamatergic signaling elevates Ca2+ levels in NAc postsynaptic elements where it activates CaMK (calcium/calmodulin protein kinases) signaling, which, in addition to phosphorylating CREB, also phosphorylates HDAC5.
Figure 2: Psychostimulant-induced signaling events - PMID 22200950.
Coincident and convergent input often induces plasticity on a postsynaptic neuron. The NAc integrates processed information about the environment from basolateral amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex (PFC), as well as projections from midbrain dopamine neurons. Previous studies have demonstrated how dopamine modulates this integrative process. For example, high frequency stimulation potentiates hippocampal inputs to the NAc while simultaneously depressing PFC synapses (Goto and Grace, 2005). The converse was also shown to be true; stimulation at PFC potentiates PFC–NAc synapses but depresses hippocampal–NAc synapses. In light of the new functional evidence of midbrain dopamine/glutamate co-transmission (references above), new experiments of NAc function will have to test whether midbrain glutamatergic inputs bias or filter either limbic or cortical inputs to guide goal-directed behavior.
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Most addictive drugs increase extracellular concentrations of dopamine (DA) in nucleus accumbens (NAc) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), projection areas of mesocorticolimbic DA neurons and key components of the "brain reward circuit". Amphetamine achieves this elevation in extracellular levels of DA by promoting efflux from synaptic terminals. ... Chronic exposure to amphetamine induces a unique transcription factor delta FosB, which plays an essential role in long-term adaptive changes in the brain.
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ΔFosB serves as one of the master control proteins governing this structural plasticity. ... ΔFosB also represses G9a expression, leading to reduced repressive histone methylation at the cdk5 gene. The net result is gene activation and increased CDK5 expression. ... In contrast, ΔFosB binds to the c-fos gene and recruits several co-repressors, including HDAC1 (histone deacetylase 1) and SIRT 1 (sirtuin 1). ... The net result is c-fos gene repression.
Figure 4: Epigenetic basis of drug regulation of gene expression - ^ PMID 23430970.
The 35-37 kD ΔFosB isoforms accumulate with chronic drug exposure due to their extraordinarily long half-lives. ... As a result of its stability, the ΔFosB protein persists in neurons for at least several weeks after cessation of drug exposure. ... ΔFosB overexpression in nucleus accumbens induces NFκB ... In contrast, the ability of ΔFosB to repress the c-Fos gene occurs in concert with the recruitment of a histone deacetylase and presumably several other repressive proteins such as a repressive histone methyltransferase
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Recent evidence has shown that ΔFosB also represses the c-fos gene that helps create the molecular switch—from the induction of several short-lived Fos family proteins after acute drug exposure to the predominant accumulation of ΔFosB after chronic drug exposure
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Further reading
- Lester BM, Tronick E, Nestler E, Abel T, Kosofsky B, Kuzawa CW, Marsit CJ, Maze I, Meaney MJ, PMID 21615751.
- Champagne FA, Rissman EF (Mar 2011). "Behavioral epigenetics: a new frontier in the study of hormones and behavior". Hormones and Behavior. 59 (3): 277–8. S2CID 17285061.
- Nelson ED, PMID 21396474.
- Plazas-Mayorca MD, PMID 20735116.
- Curley JP, Jensen CL, Mashoodh R, Champagne FA (Apr 2011). "Social influences on neurobiology and behavior: epigenetic effects during development". Psychoneuroendocrinology. 36 (3): 352–71. PMID 20650569.
- Crews D (Mar 2011). "Epigenetic modifications of brain and behavior: theory and practice". Hormones and Behavior. 59 (3): 393–8. PMID 20633562.
- Mann JJ, Currier DM (Jun 2010). "Stress, genetics and epigenetic effects on the neurobiology of suicidal behavior and depression". European Psychiatry. 25 (5): 268–71. PMID 20451357.
- Crews D (2010). "Epigenetics, brain, behavior, and the environment". Hormones. 9 (1): 41–50. PMID 20363720.
- Malvaez M, Barrett RM, Wood MA, Sanchis-Segura C (2009). "Epigenetic mechanisms underlying extinction of memory and drug-seeking behavior". Mammalian Genome. 20 (9–10): 612–23. PMID 19789849.
- Nicolaïdis S (Oct 2008). "Prenatal imprinting of postnatal specific appetites and feeding behavior". Metabolism. 57 (Suppl 2): S22-6. PMID 18803961.
- McGowan PO, Meaney MJ, Szyf M (Oct 2008). "Diet and the epigenetic (re)programming of phenotypic differences in behavior". Brain Research. 1237: 12–24. PMID 18694740.
- Szyf M, Weaver I, Meaney M (Jul 2007). "Maternal care, the epigenome and phenotypic differences in behavior". Reproductive Toxicology. 24 (1): 9–19. PMID 17561370.
- Bonasio R, Zhang G, Ye C, Mutti NS, Fang X, Qin N, Donahue G, Yang P, Li Q, Li C, Zhang P, Huang Z, Berger SL, Reinberg D, Wang J, Liebig J (Aug 2010). "Genomic comparison of the ants Camponotus floridanus and Harpegnathos saltator". Science. 329 (5995): 1068–71. PMID 20798317.
External links
- McDonald B (2011). "The Fingerprints of Poverty". Quirks & Quarks. CBC Radio.
Audio interview with Moshe Szyf, a professor of Pharmacology and Therapeutics at McGill University, discusses how epigenetic changes are related to differences in socioeconomic status.
- Oz M (2011). "Control Your Pregnancy". The Dr. Oz Show.
Video explaining how epigenetics can affect the unborn fetus.
- Paylor B (2010). "Epigenetic Landscapes". Archived from the original on 2013-12-15.
This video addresses how, in principle, accumulated epigenetic changes may result in personality differences in identical twins. This video was made by a Ph.D. candidate in experimental medicine and award winning filmmaker Ben Paylor.
page text. - Rusting R (November 2011). "Epigenetics Explained (Animation)". Scientific American.
A series of diagrams explaining how epigenetic marks affect genetic expression.