Carson River
Carson River
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![]() Carson River at Dayton, Nevada | |
![]() Carson River Basin | |
Etymology | Kit Carson |
Native name |
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Location | |
Country | United States |
State | Nevada |
Region | central Lahontan region |
Physical characteristics | |
Source | West Fork Carson River |
• location | Carson Pass, Alpine County, CA |
2nd source | East Fork Carson River |
• location | Sonora Peak, California |
Source confluence | mouths of West & East forks |
• location | near Minden, Nevada |
• coordinates | 39°42′47″N 118°39′21″W / 39.71306°N 118.65583°W[3] |
Length | 131 mi (211 km)[4] |
Basin size | 3,930 sq mi (10,200 km2)[5] |
Discharge | |
• location | Carson City, NV[6] |
• average | 400.9 cu ft/s (11.35 m3/s)[6] |
• minimum | 1.96 cu ft/s (0.056 m3/s) |
• maximum | 30,500 cu ft/s (860 m3/s) |
The Carson River is a northwestern
History
Archaeological findings place the eastern border for the prehistoric
The Carson River watershed was a shared territory between these two tribes. The Northern Paiute of western Nevada was grouped into several bands relating to the area that they inhabited. The group that established itself along the Carson River were known in the Shoshone language as "Toituked".[10] The Washoe peoples that had residence in the Carson Valley were also divided into a separate group and called "Pau wa lu".[11] Ancient people and indigenous tribes used the Carson River as a resource for livelihood, depending on the river for fish, waterfowl, plant materials, and especially water in the arid Nevada desert climate.[12] Displacement of these tribes and changes of lifestyle did not take place until the development of European settlements.
The first European settlements in Nevada were the 1851 settlements at Mormon Station (now
In the early 20th century, the
In 1989, the East Fork Carson River was designated a "Wild and Scenic River" by the State of California from Hangman's Bridge just east of Markleeville, California to the CA/NV border, prohibiting any further consideration of impoundment.[17]
Watershed
The 205 miles (330 km) Carson River watershed encompasses 3,966 square miles (10,270 km2)
Carson River mercury superfund site
The Carson River basin, from New Empire to Stillwater and the Carson Sink, was designated as National Priority Listed (NPL) due to historic mining activity site under the Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA or Superfund) in August 1990. This is Nevada's only NPL site and is being jointly managed by NDEP and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 9 (EPA), Region IX, in San Francisco.[24] Millions of pounds of mercury were imported and used in approximately 250 Comstock mills to recover gold and silver. An estimated 14,000,000 pounds of mercury was lost to the environment during that process. Arsenic and lead, which were common constituents of the mined ore, were concentrated by the milling process and were also released into the environment. Therefore, the contaminants of concern (CoCs) at the site are mercury, arsenic, and lead.
Mercury, arsenic, and lead are known or suspected carcinogens (cancer-causing agents) and/or detrimental to human health in some other way. Mercury is the primary concern regarding the Carson River Mercury Superfund site. Several forms of mercury are prevalent in the open water source, including inorganic mercury (Hg2+) and organic methylmercury (MeHg). MeHg is produced from bacteria in river systems and can be ingested by the wildlife in the area. The methylmercury, due to its specific properties that include it being fat soluble, can lead to bioaccumulation and biomagnification of mercury in Carson River Aquatic wildlife.[25] The contaminants, however, need a route into the human body to have a harmful effect. Direct contact with soils and subsequent ingestion and/or eating fish and waterfowl taken from the CRMS area, which may have already ingested CoCs, provide the most likely route into the body. Small children have the highest risk due to developing bodies and their propensity for ingesting soil while at play. Signs of Mercury poisoning due to oral ingestion are most commonly found to affect kidneys, central nervous system, and development - especially in organic mercury.[26] The EPA and other scientists studied residents of contaminated areas and found no direct evidence of increased metals in blood, hair and urine samples. They did find elevated levels in certain fish and waterfowl. Some of the highest levels in the nation. Human health, if impacted, would be impacted slowly, over years of small amounts of exposure, and could be hard to detect.
The upland (dry-land) contamination source area of the CRMS. OU-1 is undergoing continued management and monitoring to assure public protection from mine wastes. The most significant health risk in OU-1 is direct contact and ingestion of contaminated soils. OU-2 is defined as the water, sediment, and biologic resources of the Carson River, Lahontan Reservoir, Washoe Lakes, Steamboat Creek, associated irrigation ditches, and the Stillwater Wildlife Refuge. EPA Contractor and USGS are continuing studies of OU-2 areas and will produce a (RI/FS)[clarification needed]. The most significant health risk posed by mercury in OU-2 is the consumption of fish and waterfowl from affected lake and river systems. In the 1990s, the EPA compelled several limited area cleanups to be completed by third parties and completed cleanup on a half dozen areas themselves. The cleanups occurred primarily in residential areas of Dayton. The remainder of the site has not undergone cleanup, and due to the size and scope of the area impacted, most likely never will. Since complete site cleanup is not economically viable. A long-term sampling and response plan (LTSRP) was developed to manage site contamination in the future. The LTSRP provides guidance for land development activities (both commercial and residential) to help assure site CoCs do not impact human health and the environment. Typically, soil sampling is required to verify developed area soils do not contain CoCs at levels which may cause harm to human health.[27]
Mercury amalgamation process
The Mercury in the Carson river is primarily introduced into the river through sediment deposition resulting from mine tailings during the Comstock Lode. These tailings were attributed to the mining process that settlers used in the 1850s to recover silver and gold. This process is known as mercury amalgamation. Mercury amalgamation has been mining precious metals since the Middle Ages. Mercury amalgamation is accomplished by pulverizing the ore and covering it with mercury using drums or tables. Once the mercury binds to the gold or silver, it is separated from the barren soil to a retorting vessel where the mercury is vaporized and condensed off of the amalgam.[28] During the Comstock Lode a new, Washoe "hot-pan" amalgamation, the process was created specifically to treat Nevada ore in 1861. Washoe "hot pan" mining used a cast iron pan with the soil mixture, mercury, sulfuric acid, and other materials to remove the precious metals.[29]
Losses of mercury that attributed to the contamination of the Carson River and eventually to the CRMS occurred during these processes. Mercury loss in the mining operations ranged from transportation failures, crude equipment, and poor handling. The mercury was transferred using leather bags, pails, and barrels that leaked and spilled. Equipment was not up to standards and not practical for containing tailings. However, most of the mercury loss happened throughout the amalgam process. The recovery amount of the vaporized mercury completely depends on the technology used, and the efficiency of mercury binding depends on the ability of the precious metal. Both of the actions were not completely refined themselves and attributed to as much as 0.7–1 kg of mercury waste/ per tonne of ore processed in Nevada mines.[29]
Hydraulic mining was also used in the Carson River region. Hydraulic mining uses mercury to bond to the gold and silver in the mining slurry. The gold/silver amalgam drops to the bottom of the sluice while gravel and other tailings pass over. As time passes, the mercury is ground into a fine layer that coats the bottom of the sluice and can contaminate the surrounding area through leaks and the effluent of water containing the mercury. It is estimated that this practice in California attributed to mercury losses up to 10-30%.[30]
Ecology
In the lower reaches of the Carson River watershed, the Stillwater National Wildlife Refuge hosts large breeding colonies of white-faced ibis (Plegadis chihi) and is frequented by non-breeding American white pelicans (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos). In winter, the refuge supports wintering tundra swans (Cygnus columbianus) as well as hosts of ducks and geese. The Carson River watershed also provides habitat for many smaller species of birds such as tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) and house wrens (Troglodytes aedon). Recent research on these two bird species has shown significant mercury concentrations in the livers and eggshells of the birds nesting along the river.[15]
The upper Carson River watershed provides habitat for the threatened
Environmental impact
During the
Many fish species in the Carson River also have been studied to check for mercury contamination. In one study, electrofishing was conducted at four different locations along the river to capture and sample fish for traces of Hg toxicity.[41] Carp, golden shiners, species of sucker-fish, and crayfish all showed Hg toxicity in samples taken from the four testing sites. This study also showed that many samples taken from the fourth, and furthest down the river system, produced higher levels of Hg contamination, suggesting that the mercury has been getting washed down the Carson River and accumulating at the Lahontan Reservoir.[41] White bass,a piscivorous species in Lahontan Reservoir, are subject to the bioaccumulation of Hg contamination, and have showed mercury concentration significantly higher to that catfish species found in the reservoir due to difference in diet. Research has shown that the concentrations of mercury vary dependent on species, diet, and size of the individual fish, and that currently the fish found in the reservoir are considered safe, but not recommended, for human consumption.[42]
Recreation
The Carson River is a trophy trout stream that offers ideal conditions for both fly and spinning anglers. Further up in the river system anglers can fish for various species of trout, such as the previously mentioned Lahontan Cutthroat, Rainbow, and Brown trout. Down the river system the ecosystem changes to a warm water environment, and the fish species change accordingly.
Backcountry hiking is found along the upper river in the
See also
- Carson River Canyon
- Beaver in the Sierra Nevada
- Carson Range
- List of California rivers
- List of Nevada rivers
References
- ^ SWCA Environmental Consultants (2002). "Northern Paiute and Western Shoshone Land Use in Northern Nevada: A Class I Ethnographic/Ethnohistoric Overview" (PDF).
- ^ Washoe Cultural Resource Office (2009). "Wa She Shu: "The Washoe People" Past and Present" (PDF).
- ^ U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Carson River (GNIS feature ID 859159)
- ^ a b c d U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline data. The National Map Archived 2012-03-29 at the Wayback Machine, accessed March 17, 2011
- ^ "USGS Water Resources: About USGS Water Resources".
- ^ a b "USGS Surface Water data for USA: USGS Surface-Water Monthly Statistics".
- ^ Federal Writers' Project (1941). Origin of Place Names: Nevada (PDF). W.P.A. p. 19.
- ^ "CARSON RIVER MERCURY SITE Site Profile". cumulis.epa.gov. Retrieved 2020-12-11.
- ^ a b c Carson River Watershed Map (PDF) (Report). University of Nevada, Reno. Retrieved 2012-12-09.
- )
- ^ Resources Office, The Washoe Cultural (2009). "WA SHE SHU: "The Washoe People" Past and Present" (PDF). United States Forest Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-11-01. Retrieved 9 December 2020.
- ^ "Washoe Tribe of California and Nevada | ONE". onlinenevada.org. Archived from the original on 2021-01-22. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
- ^ a b David Loomis (July 2007). East Carson River Strategy (PDF) (Report). USDA Forest Service. p. 43. Retrieved 2012-12-09.
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- ^ "California Rivers: East Carson River". California Rivers. Archived from the original on 2007-01-25. Retrieved 2012-12-09.
- ^ "East Fork Carson River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior.
- ^ "West Fork Carson River". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior.
- ^ "Mexican Dam". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior.
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- ^ "Clear Creek: Partnering for Protection". Nature Conservancy. Archived from the original on 2013-07-16. Retrieved 2012-12-09.
- ^ "Carson River Mercury Superfund Site | NDEP". ndep.nv.gov. Retrieved 2018-07-25.
- ^ Flickinger, Allison. “Impact of Potential Climate Change on Predicted Fluvial Transport of Mercury and Associated Bioaccumulation along the Carson River-Lahontan Reservoir System.” University of Nevada - Reno, UMI, 2015.
- ^ ATSDR (March 3, 2011). "Toxic Substances Portal - Mercury". Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Archived from the original on 2009-03-30. Retrieved October 26, 2020.
- ^ "Carson River Mercury Superfund Site June 2012" (PDF).
- ^ "Mercury Amalgamation". mine-engineer.com. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
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- ^ N. Alpers, Charles (2000). "Mercury Contamination from Historic Gold Mining in California" (PDF). USGS. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-04-10. Retrieved December 9, 2020.
- ^ Tappe, Donald T. (1942). "The Status of Beavers in California" (PDF). Game Bulletin No. 3. California Department of Fish & Game. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-27. Retrieved 2010-10-28.
- ^ A. L. Kroeber (1919). "30". Handbook of Indians of California. Retrieved 2010-08-19.
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