Christianity in Roman Britain

Christianity was present in Roman Britain from at least the third century until the end of the Roman imperial administration in the early fifth century, and continued in western Britain.

Religion in Roman Britain was generally

After the collapse of Roman imperial administration, much of southern and eastern Britain was affected by the

The archaeological evidence for Christianity in Roman Britain is not extensive,[1] but is needed to determine the extent of the religion in this period.^[2] Determining whether an item was used in Christian or pagan symbolism and usage is not always straightforward,^[3] with the interpretation of such items often being speculative.^[4] This Christian material represents a "tiny proportion" of archaeological material recovered from Roman Britain.^[4]

Literary sources include the

Roman Britain was religiously diverse, with followers of the native Celtic religion, Roman religion, and imported eastern religions.

These separate religious traditions developed into a hybrid Romano-Celtic religion through cultural mixing.[6] Indigenous deities and Roman counterparts were sometimes syncretised, like Apollo-Cunomaglus and Sulis-Minerva. Romano-British temples were sometimes erected at older, pre-Roman cultic sites. A new style of Romano-Celtic temple developed that was influenced by both Iron Age and imperial Roman architectural styles but was also unique. Buildings in this style remained in use until the 4th century.^[10]

People in Roman Britain typically believed in a wide range of gods and goddesses. They worshipped several of them, likely selecting some local and tribal deities and some of the major divinities venerated across the Empire.^[11] The archaeologist Martin Henig suggested that to "sense something of the spiritual environment of Christianity at this time", it would be useful to imagine India, where Hinduism, "a major polytheistic system", remains dominant, and "where churches containing images of Christ and the Virgin are in a tiny minority against the many temples of gods and goddesses".^[9]

Chronology

2nd and 3rd centuries

Precisely when Christianity arrived in Roman Britain is not known. The province experienced a constant influx of people from across the empire, some of whom were possibly Christians. There is nevertheless a difference between transient Christians who may have arrived in Britain and a settled, Romano-British Christian community.^[12] Historian Dorothy Watts suggested that Christianity was perhaps introduced to Britain in the latter part of the 2nd century.^[13]

Around 200, the Carthaginian theologian Tertullian included Britain in a list of places reached by Christianity in his work, Adversus Judaeos. His contemporary, the Greek theologian Origen also wrote that Christianity had reached Britain. The accuracy of these statements can be questioned given that both writers had a strong rhetorical aspect to their work, which was designed to glorify what was still an illegal and underground religious movement. It is nevertheless possible that Tertullian and Origen were basing their statements on some reality.^[14]

Christianity experienced slow and steady growth in the empire during the 3rd century.^[15] However, the number of British Christians was probably small, and it is unlikely there was any extensive church organisation before the 4th century.^[16]

In the mid-3rd century, there was an intensification of the persecution of Christians, particularly under the Emperors Decius (r. 249–251) and Valerian (r. 253–260). These waves of persecution may have impacted the Christian community in Britain. It is possible that Saints Alban, Julius and Aaron, three Romano-British martyrs mentioned in early medieval sources, were killed at this time. In 260, the Emperor Gallienus issued an edict that decriminalised Christianity, allowing the church to own property as a corporate body.^[17]

4th and 5th centuries

The most severe persecution of Christians by the empire began in 303 under Diocletian (r. 284–305). Nevertheless, it appears that British Christians suffered less during the Diocletianic Persecution than Christians elsewhere.^[18] In 313, the Western Roman Emperor Constantine and Eastern Roman Emperor Licinius issued the Edict of Milan, putting an end to the persecution of Christians in the empire.^[19]

Available sources reveal that in this period, the British church was involved in the activities of the wider church throughout the Western Roman Empire.

In 391, Emperor Theodosius banned all pagan religions throughout the empire, with Christianity becoming its official religion. Theodosius' decree would probably have impacted Britain and been acted upon by the provincial administration.^[32] Martin Henig suggested that by the end of the 4th century, "a large proportion of British society, however materially impoverished," was Christian.^[33]

Several prominent Christians were Romano-British by birth.

Textual sources suggest that the Christian communities established in the Roman province survived in Western Britain during the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries.[42] This Western British Christianity proceeded to develop on its own terms.^[42] In the 540s, Gildas was condemning British bishops.^[43] During the twentieth century, various scholars of Western British Christianity avoided explanations of Romano-British survival and instead sought to trace the origins of Christianity in this part of Europe to sea routes.^[44] The first to challenge this assumption was Jocelyn Toynbee, who argued that Romano-British Christianity was in fact the parent of what she termed "the so-called Celtic Church" of Western Britain.^[44]

In the late sixth century, the Pope ordered that

In Roman Britain, the church primarily served as the place where the Eucharist was celebrated.^[46] It also had overlapping functions, for instance as a meeting place, a place of group worship, and a place for solitary prayer.^[46] Unlike later medieval Britain, Roman Britain lacked a dense network of parish churches.

Church buildings would have required an altar at which the Eucharist could be celebrated, a place from where readings could be made, space for the offertory procession, and room for the congregation.[48] Comparisons from other parts of the Roman Empire indicate that Romano-British examples likely also had a cathedra chair where the bishop would sit, and a vestibulum, or room where the unbaptised could withdraw.^[48]

The sporadic persecution of Christians which occurred for several centuries prevented the construction of official, purpose-built churches.^[48] Instead, early Christian meeting places were often indistinguishable from residential houses.^[48] Although some of these church house (domus ecclesiae) have been recognised in other parts of the empire, none have so far been discovered in Britain.^[49]

It is possible that Christians might have adopted pre-existing Romano-Celtic temples as their places of worship.^[50] This is an explanation which archaeologists have advanced in discussions of the Verulamium temple in front of the theatre.^[50]

There are also other pre-Christian religious sites which may have been adopted by Romano-British Christians. One example is the Chedworth spring.^[51]

There is a long-standing tradition in London that St Peter upon Cornhill church was founded by King Lucius after his conversion in 179 AD. Interestingly, the church altar is sited directly above the potential location of a pagan shrine room, of the great Roman London basilica. If Lucius did exist, it could make sense that he turned the pagan shrine room into a church.^[52]

Two other facts however, may give credence to St Peter's Roman past. The first is that London sent a bishop, Restitutus, to the Council of Arles in 314 AD. Restitutus must have had a church base. Secondly, in 1417, during a discussion about the order of precedence in a Whit Monday procession, the Mayor of London confirmed that St Peter's was the first church founded in London.^[53] Given that St Paul's Cathedral was founded in 604, this clearly implies that St Peter's was considered in 1417 to be founded pre-600.^[54]

Ceremonies

The existence of Christian symbolism on flagons, bowls, cups, spoons, wine strainers and other items used to hold food or drink suggests the existence of Christian feasts in Roman Britain.

Some mosaic floors are likely to depict Christian imagery.[56]

Most Romano-British Christians were probably illiterate and most of their knowledge of Christianity would have come through ceremony.^[57]

Martyrs and saints

There are three known Christian martyrs from Roman Britain: Saints Julius and Aaron and Saint Alban.^[58] There has been considerable debate among historians as to when these individuals lived and died.^[24] The name Aaron is Hebrew and might suggest an individual of Jewish heritage.^[59] Aaron and Julius were probably martyred in a single event during the 3rd century. This likely occurred before c. 290, when the legions withdrew from Caerleon.^[24]

The date of Alban's death is disputed,^[59] but he died at Verulamium (later renamed St Albans) where St Albans Abbey was later built.^[60] Alban is the only Romano-British martyr whose cult definitely survived the termination of the Roman imperial administration among an enclave of British Christians.^[61] Germanus described visiting Alban's shrine and exchanging relics there in 429.^[62] Bede writes that his cult was still venerated in the 8th century and that his tomb was the site of miracles.^[60] There may have been other Romano-British saints' cults which survived into the 6th and 7th centuries, when they were suppressed amid the Anglo-Saxon migration.^[4]

Interpretation

Medieval and early modern periods

After the fall of Roman imperial rule, Britain entered what historians call the early medieval period. During this period, there was an awareness that Christianity had existed in Roman Britain.

It was in the twentieth century that more significant quantities of Romano-British Christian material was discovered.[70] Various hoards, such as that from Mildenhall, were found that contained Christian material.^[70] The excavation of various Roman villas, such as that at Hinton St Mary, Dorset, revealed Christian symbolism on mosaics.^[70] The excavation of St Paul-in-the-Bail in Lincoln resulted in the discovery of a Romano-British church that had once existed on the site.^[70] By the latter half of that century there was sufficient material available that archaeologists could discuss Christianity in Roman Britain independently of the historical record.^[71] A major attempt to discuss the archaeological evidence was in a paper by the art historian Jocelyn Toynbee in 1953, which focused primarily on attempts to recognise Christian motifs and symbols on artefacts.^[71] Following Toynbee, the most important contribution to the subject was Charles Thomas' Christianity in Roman Britain to AD 500; published in 1981, it discussed historical, archaeological, and linguistic evidence.^[71]

There remains divisions among scholars in their understanding of Romano-British Christianity.^[72] This divide is often based on disciplinary divisions, with scholars of Roman archaeology and history on one side and scholars of Celtic studies or of early medieval archaeology and history on the other.^[72]

References

Footnotes