Religion in Medieval England
General |
---|
Church of England Catholic Church in England and Wales Calendar of saints (Church of England) |
Early |
Joseph of Arimathea Legend of Christ in Britain Christianity in Roman Britain |
Middle Ages |
Anglo-Saxon Christianity Religion in Medieval England |
Reformation |
Post-Reformation |
Puritanism English Civil War 18th-century Church of England 19th-century Church of England Catholic emancipation Church of England (recent) |
Religion in Medieval England includes all forms of religious organisation, practice and belief in England, between the end of Roman authority in the fifth century and the advent of the
The process of conversions led to an explosion of local church buildings and monasteries formed the main basis for the church.
The Church had a close relationship with the English state throughout the Middle Ages. The bishops and major monastic leaders played an important part in national government. After the Norman Conquest kings and archbishops clashed over rights of appointment and religious policy. By the early thirteenth century the church had largely won its argument for independence. Pilgrimages were a popular religious practice throughout the Middle Ages in England. Participation in the Crusades was also seen as a form of pilgrimage, and England played a prominent part in the Second, Third and Fifth Crusades. In the 1380s, several challenges emerged to the traditional theology of the Church, resulting from the teachings of John Wycliffe.
History
Anglo-Saxon period
Paganism and Christianisation
After 380,
The movement towards Christianity began again in the late sixth and seventh centuries, helped by the conversion of the
Over the next few years, the organisation of the English Church was laid out. While ultimately under papal authority, the church was to be divided into two
King
The Council of Hertford in 673 was the first meeting of bishops from across England. canons were adopted to promote greater uniformity, among these that the English bishops should hold an annual council at Clovesho. It also confirmed the observance of the traditions of the Latin Church over those of the Celtic Church, which had previously held influence in the north and west.[14][15] A major reorganisation of the English church occurred in the late 700s. King Offa of Mercia wanted his own kingdom to have an archbishop since the Archbishop of Canterbury was also a great Kentish magnate. In 787, a council of the English church attended by two papal legates elevated the Diocese of Lichfield into an archbishopric. There were now three provinces in England: York, Lichfield and Canterbury.[16] However, this arrangement was abandoned in 803, and Lichfield was reabsorbed into the Province of Canterbury.[17]
Initially, the diocese was the only administrative unit in the Anglo-Saxon church. The bishop served the diocese from a cathedral town with the help of a group of priests known as the bishop's familia. These priests would baptise, teach and visit the remoter parts of the diocese. Familiae were placed in other important settlements, and these were called minsters.[18] The parish system grew out of manorialism. The parish church was a private church built and endowed by the lord of the manor, who retained the right to nominate the parish priest. The priest supported himself by farming his glebe and was also entitled to other support from parishioners. The most important was the tithe, the right to collect one-tenth of all produce from land or animals. Originally, the tithe was a voluntary gift, but the church successfully made it a compulsory tax by the 10th century.[19]
The
Unified kingdom
Alfred the Great of Wessex and his successors led the Anglo-Saxon resistance and reconquest, culminating in the formation of a single Kingdom of England. The king was regarded not only as the head of the church but also "the vicar of Christ among a Christian folk".[24] Bishops were chosen by the king and tended to be recruited from among royal chaplains or monasteries. The bishop-elect was then presented at a synod where clerical approval was obtained and consecration followed. The appointment of an archbishop was more complicated and required approval from the pope. The Archbishop of Canterbury had to travel to Rome to receive the pallium, his symbol of office. These visits to Rome and the payments that accompanied them (such as Peter's Pence) was a point of contention.[25]
With the conversion of much of England in the sixth and seventh centuries, there was an explosion of local church building.
Reforms followed under the English kings who promoted the
By the 10th century, the parish system was well established. The parish church was still the property of a local lord, but in towns and the Danelaw the people had acquired ownership. Parish priests were typically local men with a basic education. Many of them were married (especially in the North), but
In 1000, there were eighteen dioceses in England. In the Province of Canterbury:
In the 1050s, Edward the Confessor rebuilt Westminster Abbey as his burial place. It was modeled on Jumièges Abbey and other Norman churches and was the largest, grandest church building in England. The king's decision to be buried at Westminster rather than at the traditional site of Winchester was part of the process whereby London became the center of English political life.[37]
Post-Conquest
In 1066,
Some of these Norman and French churchmen adopted and embraced aspects of the former Anglo-Saxon religious system, while others introduced practices from Normandy.[40] Extensive English lands were granted to monasteries in Normandy, allowing them to create daughter priories and monastic cells across the kingdom.[41] The monasteries were brought firmly into the web of feudal relations, with their holding of land linked to the provision of military support to the crown.[42] The Normans adopted the Anglo-Saxon model of monastic cathedral communities, and within seventy years, the majority of English cathedrals were controlled by monks; every English cathedral, however, was rebuilt to some extent by the new rulers.[43] England's bishops remained powerful temporal figures, and in the early twelfth century, raised armies against Scottish invaders and built up extensive holdings of castles across the country.[44]
New religious orders began to be introduced into England. As ties to Normandy waned, the French
Belief and practice
Church interiors
Medieval churches were divided into two main sections, the
Walls featured colorful paintings illustrating the doctrines of creation, incarnation, atonement, penance, purgatory and judgement. In a time of high illiteracy, these images acted as "books for laymen". One such image was the
Liturgy and worship
The Mass was at the heart of medieval religion. In the Mass, the priest offered bread and wine on the altar, and, according to the doctrine of transubstantiation, the bread and wine were miraculously transformed into the body and blood of Christ. Theologically, this meant that when Christians ate sacramental bread (called the host), Christ became part of them. The Church also taught that the Mass was a sacrifice—the same sacrifice of Christ on the cross—and a means of grace in which forgiveness, salvation and healing were obtained. [52]
The priest spoke or sung the Mass entirely in Latin, which few people understood. In addition, the priest whispered or mumbled the service, which meant that those in the nave could not hear. When responses were required, these were provided by the choir or the acolytes in the chancel. Any singing was performed by choirs in
The most important part of the Mass was the elevation of the host, allowing the congregation to adore the body of Christ. It was a common belief that to gaze upon the host protected one from sudden death for the rest of that day. While the priest always took communion during the Mass, the laity only received communion at Easter. Preparation for receiving communion included fasting and making full confession of sin to a priest who assigned penance and then pronounced absolution. The communicant entered the chancel through the rood screen and knelt before the priest who placed the host directly into their mouth, so their hands would not touch it. Laity never received the sacramental wine; only the priest received communion in both kinds. [55]
It was unusual for sermons to be preached at Mass. Most priests were not trained preachers, and clergy needed to have a special license from the bishop in order to preach. Parishes sometimes heard sermons from visiting friars or other preachers. Each parish was supposed to hear a sermon at least four times annually, but whether this happened depended on how isolated the parish was geographically.[56]
Pilgrimage
Pilgrimages were a popular religious practice throughout the Middle Ages in England.[57] Typically pilgrims would travel short distances to a shrine or a particular church, either to do penance for a perceived sin, or to seek relief from an illness or other condition.[58] Some pilgrims travelled further, either to more distant sites within Britain or, in a few cases, onto the continent.[59]
During the Anglo-Saxon period, many shrines were built on former pagan sites which became popular pilgrimage destinations, while other pilgrims visited prominent monasteries and sites of learning.
Participation in the
Lollardy
In the 1380s, several challenges emerged to the traditional teachings of the Church, resulting from the teachings of
Church and state
The Church had a close relationship with the English state throughout the Middle Ages. The bishops and major monastic leaders played an important part in national government, having key roles on the king's council.[77] Bishops often oversaw towns and cities, managing local taxation and government. This frequently became untenable with the Viking incursions of the ninth century, and in locations such as Worcester the local bishops came to new accommodations with the local ealdormen, exchanging some authority and revenue for assistance in defence.[78] The early English church was racked with disagreement on doctrine, which was addressed by the Synod of Whitby in 664; some issues were resolved, but arguments between the archbishops of Canterbury and York as to which had primacy across Britain began shortly afterwards and continued throughout most of the medieval period.[79]
William the Conqueror acquired the support of the Church for the invasion of England by promising ecclesiastical reform.
Bishops held considerable secular responsibilities. As tenants-in-chief of the crown, they were responsible for providing a quota of armed knights for the king's army. Although they weren't expected to be involved in actual combat, several bishops became active military leaders; an example is Thurstan, Archbishop of York, who mustered the army that defeated the Scots at the Battle of the Standard in 1138. Bishops were also responsible for administering their huge estates and presiding in the courts that dealt with civil disputes within them.[85] They were also required to attend royal councils, and with the development of the Parliament of England in the 13th century, the two archbishops and nineteen bishops were required to take their seats in the House of Lords, along with the abbots and priors of the largest religious houses; collectively, they were known as the Lords Spiritual.[86]
Judaism
The first substantial Jewish population in England arrived after the Norman Conquest, reportedly migrating from Rouen in Normandy.[87] By the mid-12th century, there were Jewish communities in most of England's major cities. Although there were violent anti-Jewish massacres and riots in several cities, Jews were theoretically under the protection of the Crown because of their financial importance.[88] However, in 1275, King Edward I passed the Statute of Jewry, which compelled Jews to be identified by a yellow badge and outlawed usury, the lending of money for interest, which was the main source of income for many Jewish families. Following increasing state persecution and attempts to force conversion to Christianity, Edward finally expelled all Jews from England in 1290.[89]
References
- ^ Fleming 2000, pp. 121 and 126.
- ^ Brown 2003, p. 19.
- ^ Whitelock 1972, pp. 21–22.
- ^ Fleming 2000, pp. 127.
- ^ Fleming 2000, pp. 156–157.
- ^ Fleming 2000, pp. 152–153.
- ^ Fleming 2000, pp. 160–161.
- ^ Lavelle 2010, pp. 8 and 11–12.
- ^ Starkey 2010, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Moorman 1973, pp. 14–15.
- ^ Moorman 1973, p. 19.
- ^ Moorman 1973, p. 18.
- ^ a b Starkey 2010, p. 34.
- ^ Cross and Livingstone, p. 767
- ^ Moorman 1973, p. 23.
- ^ Starkey 2010, p. 38.
- ^ Moorman 1973, p. 39.
- ^ Moorman 1973, p. 27.
- ^ Moorman 1973, p. 28.
- ^ Sawyer 1982, pp. 131.
- ^ Lavelle 2010, pp. 319.
- ^ Rahtz and Watts 2003, pp. 303–305.
- ^ Lavelle 2010, pp. 140.
- ^ Moorman 1973, p. 47: Laws of Ethelred II, quoted in F.M. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 538
- ^ Loyn 2000, p. 4.
- ^ Nilson 2001, p. 70.
- ^ Fleming 2000, pp. 128–129 and 170–173.
- ^ Gilchrist 2006, p. 2.
- ^ Fleming 2000, pp. 318–319, 321.
- ^ Fleming 2000, p. 318.
- ^ Fleming 2000, pp. 322–323.
- ^ Starkey 2010, pp. 62–63.
- ^ Fleming 2000, p. 322.
- ^ Burton 1994, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Moorman 1973, pp. 50–51.
- ^ Moorman 1973, p. 48.
- ^ Starkey 2010, pp. 86–87.
- ^ Borman 2021, p. 10.
- ^ Starkey 2010, p. 111–112.
- ^ Burton 1994, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Burton 1994, pp. 29–30
- ^ Burton 1994, p. 28
- ^ Burton 1994, pp. 28–29; Nilson 2001, p. 70
- ^ Huscroft 2005, pp. 126–127; Bradbury 2009, p. 36; Pounds 1994, pp. 142–143
- ^ Burton 1994, pp. 36–38
- ^ Carpenter 2004, pp. 444–445
- ^ Carpenter 2004, p. 446; Danziger and Gillingham 2003, p. 208
- ^ Carpenter 2004, pp. 448–450; Danziger and Gillingham 2003, pp. 209
- ^ Forey 1992, pp. 98–99, 106–107
- ^ Ryrie 2017, p. 13.
- ^ Ryrie 2017, pp. 13 and 19.
- ^ Ryrie 2017, pp. 15–16.
- ^ Ryrie 2017, pp. 13–14.
- ^ Ryrie 2017, p. 14.
- ^ Ryrie 2017, pp. 16–17.
- ^ Ryrie 2017, pp. 14–15.
- ^ Webb 2000, p. 1
- ^ Webb 2000, pp. xiii and xvi
- ^ Webb 2000, pp. xvi–xvii
- ^ Webb 2000, pp. 3–5.
- ^ Webb 2000, pp. 5–6
- ^ Webb 2000, pp. 19–21
- ^ Webb 2000, pp. 24–27
- ^ Webb 2000, pp. 35–38
- ^ Webb 2000, p. 63
- ^ Webb 2000, p. xii
- ^ Carpenter 2004, p. 445
- ^ Tyerman 1996, pp. 11 and 13
- ^ Carpenter 2004, p. 456
- ^ Carpenter 2004, p. 458; Tyerman 1996, pp. 16–17
- ^ Rubin 2006, pp. 148–149
- ^ Rubin 2006, pp. 149–150
- ^ Rubin 2006, pp. 150–151; Aston and Richmond 1997, pp. 1–4
- ^ Rubin 2006, p. 154
- ^ Rubin 2006, pp. 198–199
- ^ Deane 2011, pp. 232–34
- ^ Whitelock 1972, pp. 54–55
- ^ Fleming 2000, pp. 246–247
- ^ Whitelock 1972, pp. 160–163
- ^ Burton 1994, p. 21; Barlow 1999, p. 75
- ^ Barlow 1999, pp. 98 and 103–104
- ^ Barlow 1999, p. 104; Duggan 1962, p. 67
- ^ Hollister 2003, p. 168; Alexander 1970, pp. 2–3 and 10; Barlow 1999, pp. 83–84 and 88–89
- ^ Barlow 1999, p. 361
- ^ Wickson 2015, p. xxvi.
- ^ "Medieval House of Lords". www.parliament.uk. United Kingdom Parliament. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
- ^ Terry 2000, p. 382.
- ^ Karesh & Hurvitz 2006, p. 137.
- ^ Rist 2016, p. 68.
Bibliography
- Aston, Margaret; Richmond, Colin (1997). "Introduction". In Aston, Margaret; Richmond, Colin (eds.). Lollardy and the Gentry in the Later Middle Ages. Stroud, UK: Sutton. ISBN 978-0-312-17388-3.
- Barlow, Frank (1999). The Feudal Kingdom of England, 1042–1216. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education. ISBN 0582381177.
- ISBN 9780802159113.
- Bradbury, Jim (2009). Stephen and Matilda: the Civil War of 1139–53. Stroud, UK: The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7509-3793-1.
- Brown, Andrew (2003). Church and Society in England, 1000-1500. Social History in Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0333691458.
- Burton, Janet E. (1994). Monastic and Religious Orders in Britain, 1000–1300. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-37797-3.
- Carpenter, David (2004). The Struggle for Mastery: The Penguin History of Britain 1066–1284. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-014824-4.
- Cross, Frank Leslie; Livingstone, Elizabeth A (2005). The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19280290-3.
- Danziger, Danny; Gillingham, John (2003). 1215: The Year of Magna Carta. Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-340-82475-7.
- Deane, Jennifer Kolpacoff (2011). A History of Medieval Heresy and Inquisition. London: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-6811-2.
- Duggan, Charles (1962). "The Becket Dispute and the Criminous Clerks". Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research. 35 (91): 1–28. .
- ISBN 978-0-14-014823-7.
- Forey, Alan (1992). The Military Orders From the Twelfth to the Early Fourteenth Centuries. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-46235-5.
- Gilchrist, Roberta (2006). Norwich Cathedral Close: The Evolution of the English Cathedral Landscape. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-173-0.
- Hollister, C. Warren (2003). Henry I (Yale ed.). New Haven, U.S.: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09829-7.
- Huscroft, Richard (2005). Ruling England, 1042–1217. Harlow, UK: Pearson. ISBN 0-582-84882-2.
- Karesh, Sara E; Hurvitz, Mitchell M (2006). Encyclopedia of Judaism. New York: Facts On File Inc. ISBN 0-8160-5457-6.
- Lavelle, Ryan (2010). Alfred's Wars: Sources and Interpretations of Anglo-Saxon Warfare in the Viking Age. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-569-1.
- ISBN 9781317884729.
- ISBN 978-0819214065.
- Pounds, Norman John Greville (1994). The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: A Social and Political History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45828-3.
- Rahtz, Philip; Watts, Lorna (2005). "Three Ages of Conversion at Kirkdale, North Yorkshire". In Carver, Martin (ed.). The Cross Goes North: Processes of Conversion in Northern Europe, AD 300–1300. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. ISBN 1843831252.
- Rist, Rebecca (2016). Popes and Jews, 1095-1291. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-871798-0.
- Rubin, Miri (2006). The Hollow Crown: The Penguin History of Britain 1272–1485. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-014825-1.
- ISBN 978-1-315-27214-6.
- Sawyer, P. H. (1982). Kings and Vikings: Scandinavia and Europe, AD 700–1100. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-04590-2.
- ISBN 9780007307715.
- Terry, Michael (2000). Reader's Guide to Judaism. Routledge. ISBN 1-57958-139-0.
- ISBN 978-0-226-82013-2.
- Webb, Diana (2000). Pilgrimage in Medieval England. London: Hambledon. ISBN 978-1-85285-250-4.
- Whitelock, Dorothy (1972). The Beginnings of English Society (2nd ed.). Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-020245-5.
- Wickson, Roger (2015). Kings and Bishops in Medieval England, 1066-1216. Palgrave. ISBN 978-1-137-43116-5.
Further reading
- Alexander, James W. (1970). "The Becket Controversy in Recent Historiography". The Journal of British Studies. 9 (2): 1–26. JSTOR 175153.
- Nilson, Ben (2001). Cathedral Shrines of Medieval England. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. ISBN 978-0-85115-808-2.