Constantius II
Constantius II | |||||||||
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Issue | Constantia (wife of Gratian) | ||||||||
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Dynasty | Constantinian | ||||||||
Father | Constantine the Great | ||||||||
Mother | Fausta | ||||||||
Religion | Semi-Arianism |
Constantius II (
Constantius was a son of
Unwilling to accept Magnentius as co-ruler, Constantius waged a civil war against the usurper, defeating him at the battles of Mursa Major in 351 and Mons Seleucus in 353. Magnentius died by suicide after the latter battle, leaving Constantius as sole ruler of the empire. In 351, Constantius elevated his cousin Constantius Gallus to the subordinate rank of Caesar to rule in the east, but had him executed three years later after receiving scathing reports of his violent and corrupt nature. Shortly thereafter, in 355, Constantius promoted his last surviving cousin, Gallus' younger half-brother Julian, to the rank of Caesar.
As emperor, Constantius promoted
Early life
Constantius was born in 317 at
Augustus in the East
In early 337, Constantius hurried to
Soon after, Constantius met his brothers in
Constantius then hurried east to Antioch to resume the war with Persia.[22][23] While Constantius was away from the eastern frontier in early 337, King Shapur II assembled a large army, which included war elephants, and launched an attack on Roman territory, laying waste to Mesopotamia and putting the city of Nisibis under siege.[24] Despite initial success, Shapur lifted his siege after his army missed an opportunity to exploit a collapsed wall.[23] When Constantius learned of Shapur's withdrawal from Roman territory, he prepared his army for a counter-attack.
Constantius repeatedly defended the eastern border against invasions by the
Meanwhile, Constantine II desired to retain control of Constans' realm, leading the brothers into open conflict. Constantine was killed in 340 near Aquileia during an ambush.[28][29][30] As a result, Constans took control of his deceased brother's realms and became sole ruler of the Western two-thirds of the empire. This division lasted until January 350, when Constans was assassinated by forces loyal to the usurper Magnentius.[31][32][30]
War against Magnentius
Constantius was determined to march west to fight the usurper.[33] However, feeling that the east still required some sort of imperial presence, he elevated his cousin Constantius Gallus to caesar of the eastern provinces.[34][35] As an extra measure to ensure the loyalty of his cousin, he married the elder of his two sisters, Constantina, to him.[36]
Before facing Magnentius, Constantius first came to terms with Vetranio, a loyal general in Illyricum who had recently been acclaimed emperor by his soldiers.[37] Vetranio immediately sent letters to Constantius pledging his loyalty, which Constantius may have accepted simply in order to stop Magnentius from gaining more support. These events may have been spurred by the action of Constantina, who had since traveled east to marry Gallus. Constantius subsequently sent Vetranio the imperial diadem and acknowledged the general's new position as augustus.[35] However, when Constantius arrived, Vetranio willingly resigned his position and accepted Constantius’ offer of a comfortable retirement in Bithynia.[38]
In 351, Constantius clashed with Magnentius in Pannonia with a large army. The ensuing Battle of Mursa Major was one of the largest and bloodiest battles ever between two Roman armies.[39][40] The result was a victory for Constantius, but a costly one. Magnentius survived the battle and, determined to fight on, withdrew into northern Italy. Rather than pursuing his opponent, however, Constantius turned his attention to securing the Danubian border, where he spent the early months of 352 campaigning against the Sarmatians along the middle Danube.[41] After achieving his aims, Constantius advanced on Magnentius in Italy. This action led the cities of Italy to switch their allegiance to him and eject the usurper's garrisons. Again, Magnentius withdrew, this time to southern Gaul.[41][42]
In 353, Constantius and Magnentius met for the final time at the Battle of Mons Seleucus in southern Gaul, and again Constantius emerged the victor.[41] Magnentius, realizing the futility of continuing his position, committed suicide on 10 August 353.[43][44][42]
Solo reign
Constantius spent much of the rest of 353 and early 354 on campaign against the
In Mediolanum, Constantius first summoned
In Poetovio, Gallus was arrested by the soldiers of Constantius under the command of Barbatio.[52] Gallus was then moved to Pola and interrogated. Gallus claimed that it was Constantina who was to blame for all the trouble while he was in charge of the eastern provinces.[53] This angered Constantius so greatly that he immediately ordered Gallus' execution.[54] He soon changed his mind, however, and recanted the order.[55][56][57] Unfortunately for Gallus, this second order was delayed by Eusebius, one of Constantius' eunuchs, and Gallus was executed.[51]
Religious issues
Paganism
Laws dating from the 350s prescribed the death penalty for those who performed or attended pagan sacrifices, and for the worshipping of idols.[59][60][61] Pagan temples were shut down,[62][63] and the Altar of Victory was removed from the Senate meeting house.[64] There were also frequent episodes of ordinary Christians destroying, pillaging and desecrating many ancient pagan temples, tombs and monuments.[65][66][67][68] Paganism was still popular among the population at the time. The emperor's policies were passively resisted by many governors and magistrates.[63][69][70]
In spite of this, Constantius never made any attempt to disband the various Roman priestly colleges or the Vestal Virgins. He never acted against the various pagan schools. At times, he actually made some effort to protect paganism. In fact, he even ordered the election of a priest for Africa.[71] Also, he remained pontifex maximus and was deified by the Roman Senate after his death. His relative moderation toward paganism is reflected by the fact that it was over twenty years after his death, during the reign of Gratian, that any pagan senator protested his treatment of their religion.[72]
Christianity
Although often considered an
According to the
Judaism
Judaism faced some severe restrictions under Constantius, who seems to have followed an anti-Jewish policy in line with that of his father.
Further crises
On 11 August 355, the
Constantius realised that too many threats still faced the Empire, however, and he could not possibly handle all of them by himself. So on 6 November 355,
Constantius spent the next few years overseeing affairs in the western part of the empire primarily from his base at Mediolanum. In April–May 357 he visited Rome for the only time in his life. The same year, he forced Sarmatian and Quadi invaders out of Pannonia and Moesia Inferior, then led a successful counter-attack across the Danube.[83]
In the winter of 357–58, Constantius received ambassadors from
Usurpation of Julian and crises in the east
In the meantime, Julian had won some victories against the
On account of the immediate Sassanid threat, Constantius was unable to directly respond to his cousin's usurpation, other than by sending missives in which he tried to convince Julian to resign the title of augustus and be satisfied with that of caesar. By 361, Constantius saw no alternative but to face the usurper with force, and yet the threat of the
Death
Constantius immediately gathered his forces and set off west. However, by the time he reached Mopsuestia in Cilicia, it was clear that he was fatally ill and would not survive to face Julian. The sources claim that realising his death was near, Constantius had himself baptised by Euzoius, the Semi-Arian bishop of Antioch, and then declared that Julian was his rightful successor.[101][i] Constantius II died of fever on 3 November 361.[107]
Like Constantine the Great, he was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis.[108]
Marriages and children
Constantius II was married three times:
First to a
Second, to Eusebia, a woman of Macedonian origin, originally from the city of Thessalonica, whom Constantius married before his defeat of Magnentius in 353. She died before 361.[111]
Third and lastly, in 361, to Faustina, who gave birth to Constantius' only child, a posthumous daughter named Constantia, who later married Emperor Gratian.[112]
Family tree
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Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections
1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings
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Reputation
According to DiMaio and Frakes, “...Constantius is hard for the modern historian to fully understand both due to his own actions and due to the interests of the authors of primary sources for his reign.”[113] A. H. M. Jones writes that he "appears in the pages of Ammianus as a conscientious emperor but a vain and stupid man, an easy prey to flatterers. He was timid and suspicious, and interested persons could easily play on his fears for their own advantage."[114] However, Kent and M. and A. Hirmer suggest that the emperor "has suffered at the hands of unsympathetic authors, ecclesiastical and civil alike. To orthodox churchmen he was a bigoted supporter of the Arian heresy, to Julian the Apostate and the many who have subsequently taken his part he was a murderer, a tyrant and inept as a ruler". They go on to add, "Most contemporaries seem in fact to have held him in high esteem, and he certainly inspired loyalty in a way his brother could not".[115]
Eutropius wrote of him,[116]
He was a man of a remarkably tranquil disposition, good-natured, trusting too much to his friends and courtiers, and at last too much in the power of his wives. He conducted himself with great moderation in the commencement of his reign; he enriched his friends, and suffered none, whose active services he had experienced, to go unrewarded. He was however somewhat inclined to severity, whenever any suspicion of an attempt on the government was excited in him; otherwise he was gentle. His fortune is more to be praised in civil than in foreign wars.
See also
- Persian wars of Constantius II
- Itineraries of the Roman emperors, 337–363
Notes
- ^ In the Praetorian prefecture of Gaul.
- ^ In the Praetorian prefecture of Italy, then the whole Western Roman Empire.
- ^ In the West, unrecognized by Constantius II.
- ^ In the West, against Magnentius.
- ^ In Rome for 27 days, against Magnentius.
- ^ In rebellion against Constantius II.
- ^ By 354, Constantius’ courtiers stopped denying his involvement and instead claimed he was tormented with guilt over his role in the massacre.[14][20]
- ^ Ammianus and Julian both portrayed Constantius’ order as fueled by envy of the Caesar’s growing popularity, with the additional intent of weakening his military position, as he had previously done with Gallus.[97] Crawford was somewhat skeptical of such a portrayal, believing that Julian would’ve needed far less troops than Constantius if he was really as successful as he portrayed himself,[98] while Potter thought Constantius’ act was necessary for his plan.[95]
- ^ Ammianus only recorded Constantius’ legitimization of Julian as a rumor. While Hunt and Matthews treated the report with caution,[102][103] Kelly considered it to be true, observing that the act prevented civil war and protected his posthumous reputation, as well as his wife’s unborn child.[104] Errington and Crawford also accepted it as true, viewing it as a display of pragmatism and dynastic solidarity.[105][106]
References
- ISBN 978-3-11-071152-3.
- ^ "Statue". Penn Museum
- ^ CIL 06, 40776 = AE 1934, 00158 = AE 1950, 00174 = AE 1951, 00102 = AE 1982, 00011
- ISBN 9780872901391.
- ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris, p. 226.
- ^ a b Dodgeon, Greatrex & Lieu, p. 152-153.
- ^ Julian, Orationes I, 13B
- ^ Festus, breviarum 27, p. 67, 2–3
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus XVIII, 9, 1
- ^ Constanzo II o Constante. Musei Capitolini
- ^ Hunt 1998, p. 1.
- ^ Burgess 2008, p. 10.
- ^ Hunt 1998, p. 3.
- ^ a b c Julian, "Letter to the senate and people of Athens", 270. The full text of Letter to the senate and people of Athens at Wikisource
- ^ Burgess 2008, p. 25.
- ^ Eutropius, Historiae Romanae Breviarium X.9
- ^ Julian, "Letter to the senate and people of Athens", 271. The full text of Letter to the senate and people of Athens at Wikisource
- ^ DiMaio 1992, p. 165.
- ^ Burgess 2008, pp. 26–27.
- ^ Burgess 2008, pp. 16–17.
- ^ a b Hunt 1998, p. 4.
- ^ Hunt 1998, pp. 11–12.
- ^ a b Theodoret, Historia Ecclesiastica II, 30, 1–14, GCS
- ^ Hunt 1998, p. 12.
- ^ a b Hunt 1998, p. 13.
- ^ Festus, Brevarium XXVII
- ^ a b Dingas & Winter 2007, p. 89.
- ^ Hunt 1998, p. 5.
- ^ Drinkwater 2007, p. 199.
- ^ a b Crawford 2016, “Fraternal Civil War and the Usurpation of Magnentius”.
- ^ Hunt 1998, p. 11.
- ^ Potter 2004, p. 471.
- ^ Errington 2006, p. 16.
- ^ Barnes 1993, p. 105.
- ^ a b Potter 2004, p. 472.
- ^ Hunt 1998, p. 17.
- ^ Barnes 1993, p. 101.
- ^ Hunt 1998, pp. 16–17.
- ^ Potter 2004, p. 473.
- ^ Hunt 1998, p. 20.
- ^ a b c Potter 2004, p. 474.
- ^ a b Barnes 1993, p. 106.
- ^ Hunt 1998, p. 22.
- ^ Drinkwater 2007, p. 201.
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae 14.1.10
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.10.16
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.3–5
- ^ a b Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.6
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.11–12
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.19
- ^ a b "Banchich, T.M., 'DIR-Gallus' from De Imperatoribus Romanis". Archived from the original on 10 December 2008. Retrieved 2 March 2009.
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.20
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.22
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIV.11.23
- ^ Zonaras, Extracts of History XIII.9.20
- ^ Libanius, Orations XVIII.152
- ^ Philostorgius, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.1
- The Walters Art Museum.
- ^ Kirsch, J. (2004) God against the Gods, pp.200-1, Viking Compass
- ^ The Codex Theodosianus On Religion, 16.10.2
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.6
- ^ ""The Codex Theodosianus On Religion", XVI.x.4, 4 CE".
- ^ a b "A History of the Church", Philip Hughes, Sheed & Ward, rev ed 1949, vol I chapter 6.[1] Archived 23 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Sheridan, J.J. (1966) The Altar of Victor – Paganism's Last Battle. in L'Antiquite Classique 35 : 186-187.
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae 22.4.3
- ^ Sozomen Ecclesiastical History 3.18.
- ^ Theodosian Code 16.10.3
- ^ Theodosian Code 9.17.2
- Roman Calendarof 354 cites many Pagan festivals as though they were still being openly observed. See also the descriptions of Pagan worship in the following works: Firmicius Maternus De Errore Profanorum Religionum; Vetus Orbis Descriptio Graeci Scriptoris sub Constantio.
- ^ Bowder, D. (1978) The Age of Constantine and Julian
- ^ Vasiliev 1958, p. 68.
- ^ Salzman 2002, p. 182.
- ^ a b Jones 1964, p. 118.
- ^ Pelikan, J.J., The Christian Tradition (1989), pp. 209–10
- ^ Gaddis 2005, p. 92.
- ISBN 978-0-415-72880-5.
- ^ a b Schäfer 2003, p. 180-181.
- ^ a b Codex Theodosianus 16.9.2
- ^ Codex Theodosianus 16.8.7
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XV.8.17
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XV.8.5–16
- ^ a b Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XV.8.18
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XVI.12
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XVII.5.3–8
- ^ Zonaras, Extracts of History XII.9.25-7
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XVII.5.9–14
- ^ Zonaras, Extracts of History XII.9.28-9
- ^ Libanius, Epistle 331
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XVII.14.1–3 & XVIII.6.17-8
- ^ Eunapius, Lives of the Sophists VI. 5.1–10
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XX.6
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XIX
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XX.7.1–16
- ^ Drinkwater 2007, p. 253.
- ^ a b Potter 2004, p. 505.
- ^ Hunt 1998, p. 57.
- ^ Walter E. Roberts and Michael DiMaio Jr., Julian (361-363 A.D.) Archived 24 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Crawford 2016, “The Usurpation of Julian: Ungrateful Brat or Left No Choice?”.
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XX.11.6–25
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae XXI.7.7 & 13.1–5
- ^ a b Vagi 2001, p. 508.
- ^ Hunt 1998, p. 60.
- ^ Matthews 1989, p. 101.
- ^ Kelly, Gavin (2013). "The Political Crisis of AD 375–376" (PDF). Chiron p. 357
- ^ Errington 2006, p. 18.
- ^ Crawford 2016.
- ^ The manuscript of Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae 21.15.2 reads tertium nonarum Octobrium, which is the equivalent of 5 October. The latest editor of the Res Gestae accepts Otto Seeck's emendation tertium nonarum Novembrium which is the equivalent of 3 November. T.D. Barnes (Classical Philology, 88 [1993], p. 64f) provides indirect evidence showing 3 November is a better fit.
- (PDF) from the original on 31 December 2019.
- ^ http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk, LSA-1065 (J. Lenaghan)
- ^ Banchich, Thomas M. "Gallus Caesar (15 March 351 - 354 A.D.)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original on 10 December 2008. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
- ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris, pp. 300–301.
- ^ Marcellinus, Ammianus (1940). The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus. Loeb Classical Library. Vol. 2, Book 21, chapter 15. Translated by Rolfe, J. C. Harvard University Press. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
- ^ Michael DiMaio Jr. and Robert Frakes, Constantius II (337-361 A.D.) Archived 8 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Jones 1964, p. 116.
- ^ Kent, J.P.C., Hirmer, M. & Hirmer, A. Roman Coins (1978), p. 54
- ^ Eutropius, Historiae Romanae Breviarium X.15
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External links
- This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Constantius II relating to Christianity.