Chumash people
Total population | |
---|---|
2,000[1]–5,000[2] | |
Regions with significant populations | |
Languages | |
Obispeño[3] |
The Chumash are a
Modern place names with Chumash origins include
History
Prior to European contact (pre-1542)
Indigenous peoples have lived along the California coast for at least 11,000 years.[6] Sites of the Millingstone Horizon date from 7000 to 4500 BC and show evidence of a subsistence system focused on the processing of seeds with metates and manos.[7]
During that time, people used bipointed bone objects and line to catch fish and began making beads from shells of the marine olive snail (Callianax biplicata).[8] The name Chumash means "bead maker" or "seashell people" being that they originated near the Santa Barbara coast. The Chumash tribes near the coast benefited most with the "close juxtaposition of a variety of marine and terrestrial habitats, intensive upwelling in coastal waters, and intentional burning of the landscape made the Santa Barbara Channel region one of the most resource abundant places on the planet."[9]
While droughts were not uncommon in the centuries of the first millennium AD, a population explosion occurred with the coming of the
The scorpion tree was significant to the Chumash as shown in its arborglyph: a carving depicting a six-legged creature with a headdress including a crown and two spheres. The shamans participated in the carving which was used in observations of the stars and in part of the Chumash calendar.[9] The Chumash resided between the Santa Ynez Mountains and the California coasts where a bounty of resources could be found. The tribe lived in an area of three environments: the interior, the coast, and the Northern Channel Islands.[12]
The interior is composed of the land outside the coast and spanning the wide plains, rivers, and mountains. The coast covers the cliffs, land close to the ocean, and the areas of the ocean from which the Chumash harvested. The Northern Channel Islands lie off the coast of the Chumash territory. All of the California coastal-interior has a Mediterranean climate due to the incoming ocean winds.[13]
The mild temperatures, save for winter, made gathering easy; during the cold months, the Chumash harvested what they could and supplemented their diets with stored foods. What villagers gathered and traded during the seasons changed depending on where they resided.[14] With coasts populated by masses of species of fish and land densely covered by trees and animals, the Chumash had a diverse array of food.
Abundant resources and a winter rarely harsh enough to cause concern meant the tribe lived a sedentary lifestyle in addition to a subsistence existence. Villages in the three aforementioned areas contained remains of sea mammals, indicating that trade networks existed for moving materials throughout the Chumash territory.[15][16] The Chumash were connected to extensive trade networks reaching into modern day Arizona, from which pottery and textiles were traded in exchange for shell beads.[17]
The closer a village was to the ocean, the greater its reliance on maritime resources.
Ocean animals such as otters and seals were thought to be the primary meal of coastal tribes people, but recent evidence shows the aforementioned trade networks exchanged oceanic animals for terrestrial foods from the interior. Any village could acquire fish, but the coastal and island communities specialized in catching not just smaller fish, but also the massive catches such as swordfish.[22] This feat, difficult even for today's technology, was made possible by the tomol plank canoe. Its design allowed for the capture of deepwater fish, and it facilitated trade routes between villages.[22]
Some researchers believe that the Chumash
Before contact with Europeans, coastal Chumash relied less on terrestrial resources than they did on maritime; vice versa for interior Chumash.[27] Regardless, they consumed similar land resources. Like many other tribes, deer were the most important land mammal the Chumash pursued; deer were consumed in varying amounts across all regions, which cannot be said for other terrestrial animals. Interior Chumash placed greater value on the deer, to the extent that they had unique hunting practices for them.
They dressed as deer and grazed alongside the animals until the hunters were in range to use their arrows.[27] Even Chumash close to the ocean pursued deer, though in understandably fewer numbers, and what more meat the villages needed they acquired from smaller animals such as rabbits and birds. Plant foods composed the rest of Chumash diet, especially acorns, which were the staple food despite the work needed to remove their inherent toxins. They could be ground into a paste that was easy to eat and store for years.[28] Coast live oak provided the best acorns; their mush would be served usually unseasoned with meat and/or fish.[29]
Spanish contact and the mission period (1542–1834)
The Spaniard
With the arrival of the Europeans "came a series of unprecedented blows to the Chumash and their traditional lifeways. Anthropologists, historians, and other scholars have long been interested in documenting the collision of cultures that accompanied the European exploration and colonization of the Americas."[9] Spain settled on the territory of the Chumash in 1770. They founded colonies, bringing in missionaries to begin evangelizing Native Americans in the region by forcing Chumash villages into numerous missions springing up along the coast.
The Chumash people moved from their villages to the Franciscan missions between 1772 and 1817.
Mexican era (1834–1848)
Mexico seized control of the missions in 1834. Tribespeople either fled into the interior, attempted farming for themselves and were driven off the land, or were enslaved by the new administrators. Many found highly exploitative work on large Mexican ranches. After 1849 most Chumash land was lost due to theft by Americans and a declining population, due to the effects of violence and disease.
The remaining Chumash began to lose their cohesive identity. In 1855, a small piece of land (120 acres) was set aside for just over 100 remaining Chumash Indians near Santa Ynez mission. This land ultimately became the only Chumash reservation, although Chumash individuals and families also continued to live throughout their former territory in southern California. Today, the Santa Ynez band lives at and near Santa Ynez. The Chumash population was between roughly 10,000 and 18,000 in the late 18th century. In 1990, 213 Indians lived on the Santa Ynez Reservation.[33]
American era (1848–present)
The Chumash reservation, established in 1901, encompasses 127 acres. No native Chumash speak their own language since Mary Yee, the last Barbareño speaker, died in 1965. Today, the Chumash are estimated to have a population of 5,000 members. Many current members can trace their ancestors to the five islands of Channel Islands National Park.
Beginning in the 1970s, neo-Chumash arose, tracing their lineage nearly completely from the descendants of Spanish colonists to the domain of the initial Chumash people. They promote traditions of the Chumash, and are recognized locally. Their cultural assumption has been criticized by some, but is supported by others.[34]
The first modern
On September 9, 2001, the first "crossing" in the Chumash tomol, from the mainland to Channel Islands, was sponsored by the Chumash Maritime Association and the Barbareño Chumash Council. Several Chumash bands and descendants gathered on the island of Limuw (the Chumash name for Santa Cruz Island) to witness the Elye'wun being paddled from the mainland to Santa Cruz Island.
Their journey was documented in the short film "Return to Limuw" produced by the Ocean Channel for the Chumash Maritime Association, Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary, and the Santa Barbara Maritime Museum. The channel crossings have become a yearly event hosted by the Barbareño Chumash Council. The
In addition to the Santa Ynez Band, the Coastal Band of the Chumash Nation and the Barbareño/Ventureño Band of Mission Indians are attempting to gain federal recognition. Other Chumash tribal groups include the Northern Chumash Tribal Council, descendants from the San Luis Obispo area, and the Barbareño Chumash Council, descendants from the greater Santa Barbara area. The publication of the first Chumash dictionary took place in April 2008. Six hundred pages long and containing 4,000 entries, the Samala-English Dictionary includes more than 2,000 illustrations.[35] The documentary film 6 Generations: A Chumash Family History features Mary Yee, the last speaker of the Barbareño Chumash language.[36]
Produce initiative
In December 2010, the Foodbank of Santa Barbara County was the recipient of a $10,000 grant from the Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians Foundation to support expansion of the Produce Initiative. The Produce Initiative puts an emphasis on supplying fruits and vegetables to 264 local nonprofits and food programs. The foodbank distributes produce free of charge to member agencies to encourage healthy eating. Expanding produce accessibility to children is important to the foodbank and the newly operating Kids’ Farmers' Market program, an extension of the Produce Initiative, achieves that goal.
The program trains volunteers to teach kids in after-school programs nutrition education and hands-on cooking instructions. This program currently operates at 12 sites countywide, including in the Santa Ynez Valley. After the children cook and eat a healthy meal, they get to take home a bag full of fresh produce, where they can help feed and cook for the whole family.[37] Obesity in children is a major health problem prevalent among Native Americans.[38]
To promote sustainable agriculture and healthy diets, the Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Environmental Office and Education Departments' after-school program planted a community garden, which provided vegetables to the Elder's Council, beginning in 2013.[39] The Santa Ynez Valley Fruit and Vegetable Rescue, also known as Veggie Rescue, is another effort to improve food sourcing for the Santa Ynez.[40]
Worldview
Chumash
Human beings occupy the middle region, which rests upon two giant snakes. Chronological time is unimportant, though the past is divided into two sections: the universal flood that caused the First People to become the natural world and, thereafter the creation of human beings, the arrival of the Europeans, and the devastating consequences that followed."[41]
The middle region (sometimes referred to as 'antap), where humans and spirits of this world live and where shamans could travel in vision quests, is interconnected with the lower world (C'oyinahsup) through the springs and marsh areas and is connected to the upper world through the mountains. In the lower world live snakes, frogs, salamanders. The world trembles or has earthquakes when the snakes which support the world writhe.[citation needed]
Water creatures are also in contact with the powers of the lower world and "were often depicted in rock art perhaps to bring more water to the Chumash or to appease underworld spirits' at times of hunger or disease." Itiashap is the home of the First People. Alapay is the upper world in Chumash cosmology where the "sky people" lived, who play an important role in the health of the people. Principle figures of the sky world include the Sun, the Moon, Lizard, Sky Coyote, and Eagle. The Sun is the source of life and is also "a source of disease and death."[42]
Chumash bands
One Chumash band, the
- Barbareño Chumash, affiliated with the Taynayan missions and the Kashwa reservations.
- Coastal Band of the Chumash Nation, their historical territory, north of Los Angeles, includes parts of the coastal counties of Santa Barbara, San Luis Obispo, Kern, and Ventura. The Coastal band of the Chumash Nation applied for recognition in 1981.[44]
- Cuyama Chumash, from the Cuyama Valley.
- Island Chumash, from the Channel Islands.
- Kagismuwas Chumash, from the southwesternmost region of the ancestral Chumash land. Their historical lands are now part of Vandenberg Space Force Base.
- Los Angeles Chumash, formed when members of the historic Malibu, Tejon, and Ventura bands were relocated in the 19th century.
- Malibu Chumash, from the coast of Malibu. Descendants of this band can now be found among the Ventura, Coastal, Tejon, and San Fernando Valley bands.
- Monterey Chumash, from the Monterey Peninsula.
- Samala, or Santa Ynez Chumash. The Santa Ynez Chumash people in 2012 went to federal court to regain more land. The Bureau of Indian Affairs approved the request; the land was to go toward tribal housing and a Chumash Museum and Cultural Center. Protesters and anti-tribal groups have spent approximately $2 million to disrupt or stop the land acquisition.[45]
- San Fernando Valley Chumash, once laborers at the Mission San Fernando Rey de España.[citation needed] They intermarried other tribes who also worked at the mission.
- Yak Tityu Tityu Yak Tilhini Northern Chumash, homelands from coastal Avila Beach to Morro Bay. They are the northwesternmost Chumash people, located in San Luis Obispo County.
- Tecuya Chumash, most of this band of Chumash tribe were probably Kagismuwas. This band was established as an anti-colonial group, who took residence in the Tecuya Canyon along with the Tejon Chumash.
- Tejon Chumash, part of the Kern County Chumash Council. Tejon is the Spanish word for "badger", and its name was given to the Tejon Rancheria.
- Ventura Chumash, lives in the traditional Chumash domain of the Owl Clan.
Population
Estimates for the precontact populations of most native groups in California have varied substantially. The anthropologist
Some scholars[49] have suggested the Chumash population may have declined substantially during a "protohistoric" period (1542–1769), when intermittent contacts with the crews of Spanish ships, including those of Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo's expedition, who wintered in the Santa Barbara Channel in AD 1542–43, brought disease and death.
The Chumash appear to have been thriving in the late 18th-century, when Spaniards first began actively colonizing the California coast. Whether the deaths began earlier with the contacts with ships' crews or later with the construction of several Spanish missions at Ventura, Santa Barbara, Lompoc, Santa Ynez, and San Luis Obispo, the Chumash were eventually devastated by the
The demographics of traditional Chumash society are quite complex. One aspect of interest is the 'Aqi gender of the Chumash. 'Aqi was a third Chumash gender defined by biological males that performed work and wore clothing traditionally of women. The 'aqi gender appears to also be closely tied to non-procreative sexual activity, such as homosexuality.[50] Archaeological investigation of morturary practices has provided evidence for this.[51]
Languages
Several related languages under the name "
Culture
The Chumash were
Basketry
Bead manufacture and trading
The Chumash of the Northern Channel Islands were at the center of an intense regional trade network. Beads made from Callianax shells were manufactured on the Channel Islands and used as a form of currency by the Chumash.[53] These shell beads were traded to neighboring groups and have been found throughout Alta California. Over the course of late prehistory, millions of shell beads were manufactured and traded from Santa Cruz Island. It has been suggested that exclusive control over stone quarries used to manufacture the drills needed in bead production could have played a role in the development of social complexity in Chumash society.[53]
Cuisine
Foods historically consumed by the Chumash include several marine species, such as
Herbalism
Herbs used in traditional Chumash medicine include
The Chumash formerly practiced an initiation rite involving the use of sacred datura (mo'moy in their language). When a boy was 8 years old, his mother would give him a preparation of it to drink. This was supposed to be a spiritual challenge to help him develop the spiritual well-being required to become a man. Not all of the boys survived the poison.[61]
Rock art
Remains of a developed Chumash culture, including
Scorpion tree
A centuries-old
Notable people
This is a list of notable Chumash people:
- Deborah A. Miranda (born 1961), a writer and poet of Chumash-Esselen-French descent[65][66]
- John Olguin (1921–2011), former director Cabrillo Marine Aquarium, founder of the Cabrillo Whalewatch, and founding member of the American Cetacean Society[67][68]
- Rafael Solares (1822–1890), a Samala chief, captain of Soxtonoxmu, capital village in the Santa Ynez Valley who shared cultural knowledge with anthropologists in the 1800s[69][70][71]
- Fernando Librado (1839–1915), elder, master tomol builder, craft specialist, philosopher, and storyteller.[72]
- Mary Joachina Yee (1897–1965), linguist and last known speaker of the Barbareño language[73][74]
- Ernestine Ygnacio-De Soto, Chumash activist and historian, working on reviving the Barbareño language.[75]
- Semu Huaute (1908–2004), medicine man, actor, and alleged last full-blooded Chumash[76][77]
- Rosario Cooper (October 7, 1845 - June 15, 1917), last known fluent speaker of the tiłhini language who shared cultural and linguistic information with linguist and ethnographer John P. Harrington.[78]
- Petra Pico (c. April 29, 1834 – September 7, 1902), a skilled basket weaver and previous figurehead of the Ventureño Chumash Community.[79]
Places of significance
Places of significant archaeological and historical value.[80]
- Albinger Archaeological Museum in Ventura – Chumash artifacts and history
- pictographs
- Carpinteria State Beach in Carpinteria – cave paintings depicting Chumash life
- Carpinteria Valley Museum of History and Historical Society in Carpinteria – Chumash artifacts and history
- Chumash Indian Museum in Thousand Oaks – exhibitions of artifacts and recreation of Chumash houses
- Chumash Painted Cave State Historic Park in Santa Barbara – cave paintings
- Hollister Adobe Museum in San Luis Obispo – Chumash artifacts and exhibits
- Iwihinmu (Mount Pinos) – place of Chumash cultural significance
- La Purísima Mission State Historic Parkin Lompoc – displays of mission life in reconstructed buildings
- Lompoc Museum in Lompoc – Chumash artifacts and history
- Los Angeles County Museum of Natural Historyin Los Angeles – anthropology and guided tours for Chumash natural history
- Mission San Luis ObispoMuseum – Chumash artifacts and exhibits
- Morro Bay Museum of Natural History – docent presentations and Chumash exhibits
- Museum of Ventura County – exhibits on Chumash history
- Ojai Valley Museum and Historical Society in Ojai. Inland Chumash history.
- Painted Rock, Carrizo Plain Natural Heritage Reserve in San Luis Obispo County – cave paintings
- Port Hueneme Historical Society Museum in Port Hueneme - Chumash speakers (Distinguished Speaker Series) exhibit on Chumash history and artifacts
- San Buenaventura MissionMuseum in Ventura – exhibits on Chumash history
- San Luis Obispo County Historical Museum– Chumash artifacts and exhibits.
- Santa Barbara Historical Society in Santa Barbara. Guided tours.
- Santa Barbara Missionin Santa Barbara. Local Chumash history and guided tours.
- Santa Barbara Mission Archive-Library. Records of all California mission Indians. < https://web.archive.org/web/20191127055954/https://www.sbmal.org/>
- Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History – exhibits on Chumash Indians and natural history of Native Americans
- Santa Barbara Presidio– historical exhibits
- San Luis Obispo County Historical Museum– Chumash artifacts and exhibits
- Mission Santa Inés in Solvang – site of an early Spanish mission
- Santa Maria Valley Historical Society Museum – Chumash artifacts and exhibits
- Santa Rosa Island – cave paintings in Jones Cave. Thousands of artifacts of the island, which has been populated by the Chumash for more than 13,000 years, have been found.[84]
- Santa Ynez Indian Reservation (Samala) – the only Chumash Indian reservation[85]
- Newbury Park, CA
- Southwest Museumin Highland Park
- burial ground
- Toshololo (Frazier Mountain) – place of Chumash cultural significance
See also
- Burro Flats Painted Cave
- Chumash Painted Cave State Historic Park, California
- Chumash traditional narratives
- Polynesian navigation
- Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact
- Shalawa Meadow, California
Notes
- ^ a b "California Indians and Their Reservations: P." SDSU Library and Information Access. Archived from the original on January 10, 2010. Retrieved July 17, 2010.
- ^ a b c "Native Inhabitants". National Park Service. Archived from the original on May 22, 2007.
- ^ Pritzker, 121
- ^ "Chumash Indians on the Channel Islands". Sea•thos Foundation. Archived from the original on September 11, 2014. Retrieved September 9, 2014.
- ISBN 978-1-4396-3820-0. p. 11.
- ^ Dartt-Newton, Deana & Erlandson, Jon (Summer/Fall 2006). "Little Choice for the Chumash: Colonialism, Cattle, and Coercion in Mission Period California". American Indian Quarterly, Vol. 30, No. 3 & 4, 416
- ^ Glassow et al. 2007: 192–196
- ^ King 1990: 80–82, 106–107, 231
- ^ a b c (Newton 416).
- ^ Fagan, The Long Summer, 2004, p. 222
- ^ Barry.
- ^ Gamble 21.
- ^ Timbrook 164.
- ^ Gamble 228.
- ^ Coombs and Plog 313.
- ^ Fauvelle, Mikael. and Perry, Jennifer. (2023) Fisher-Hunter-Gatherer Complexity on California’s Islands: Feasting, Ceremonialism, and the Ritual Economy. In Archaeology of Fisher-Hunter-Gatherer Complexity in North America. Christina Perry Sampson, ed. Pp. 194-224. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.
- ^ Smith, Erin M., and Fauvelle, Mikael (2015) Regional Interactions between California and the Southwest: The Western Edge of the North American Continental System. American Anthropologist 17(4):710-721 https://doi.org/10.1111/aman.12346
- ^ Gamble 6.
- ^ Fauvelle, Mikael, and Somerville, Andrew D. (2021) Spatial and Temporal Variation in Fisher-Hunter-Gatherer Diets in Southern California: Bayesian Modeling Using New Baseline Stable Isotope Values. Quanternary International 601(2021):36-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2021.06.025
- ^ Gamble 26–28.
- ^ Hogan, C.M. Los Osos Back Bay. Archived 2017-08-16 at the Wayback Machine The Megalithic Portal, editor A. Burnham (2008).
- ^ a b (Gamble 156).
- ^ Did ancient Polynesians visit California? Maybe so. Archived 2007-12-30 at the Wayback Machine, San Francisco Chronicle
- ^ Arnold, Jeanne E. 1995.
- ^ Gamble, Lynn H. 2002.
- PMID 18955312. Archived from the original on February 14, 2009. Retrieved March 6, 2008.. See also Terry Jones's homepage Archived 2008-05-11 at the Wayback Machine, California Polytechnic State University.
- ^ a b (Gamble 164).
- ^ Gamble 23.
- ^ Brittain 5.
- ^ "Spanish California | Early California History: An Overview | Articles and Essays | California as I Saw It: First-Person Narratives of California's Early Years, 1849–1900 | Digital Collections | Library of Congress". Library of Congress. Retrieved August 18, 2020.
- ^ Brown 1967
- ^ McLendon and Johnson 1999
- ^ (Pritzker).
- JSTOR 3567028.
- ^ Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians Publishes Language Dictionary. ([1])
- ^ Kettmann, Matt (January 27, 2011). "Santa Barbara on Screen". The Santa Barbara Independent. Archived from the original on January 17, 2013. Retrieved May 8, 2013.
- ^ Santa Barbara Independent.
- ^ Blackwell, Amy Hackney (2014). "Childhood obesity". [dead link] In The American Mosaic: The American Indian Experience. Retrieved February 28, 2014.
- ^ "Chumash Community Garden Update". Santa Ynez Chumash Environmental Office. Archived from the original on September 18, 2016. Retrieved August 26, 2016.
- ^ "Veggie Rescue". Archived from the original on August 16, 2016. Retrieved August 26, 2016.
- ISBN 9780803231986.
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- ^ "Chumash Indians" (PDF). Chumash Indian Bands. Chumash Tribe. June 19, 2014.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Coastal Band of the Chumash Nation". YouTube. Aim Santa Barbara. Archived from the original on May 10, 2018. Retrieved April 3, 2016.
- ^ 2012. Indian Lands: Exploring Resolutions to Disputes Concerning Indian Tribes, State and Local Governments, and Private Landowners over Land Use and Development. N.p.
- ^ A. L. Kroeber, p.883
- ^ Brown, Alan K (1967). "The Aboriginal Population of the Santa Barbara Channel". Reports of the University of California Archeological Survey (69). University of California.
- ^ S. F. Cook, 1976
- ^ Erlandson et al. 2001
- )
- ^ Hollimon, S. E. 2000: Archaeology of the 'aqi: gender and sexuality in prehistoric Chumash society, in Archaeologies of Sexuality, pp. 179-196.
- ^ "Šmuwič Chumash Language School". Archived from the original on April 14, 2019. Retrieved April 14, 2019.
- ^ a b Arnold 2001
- ^ Hogan, C. M. "Los Osos Back Bay". The Megalithic Portal. Archived from the original on May 1, 2011. Retrieved June 15, 2010.
- ^ Intertidal Marine Invertebrates of the South Puget Sound (2008) Archived February 16, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Daily Life | Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History". www.sbnature.org. Retrieved April 23, 2022.
- ^ S2CID 25807034.
- ^ Fauvelle, Mikael, and Somerville, Andrew D. (2024) Diet, Status, and incipient social Inequality: Stable isotope data from three Complex Fisher-Hunter-Gatherer sites in southern California. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 73:101554 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2023.101554
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- ^ Kettmann, Matt (February 9, 2010). "A Tree Carving in California: Ancient Astronomers?". Time. Archived from the original on February 12, 2010. Retrieved February 11, 2010.
- ISBN 978-0-87417-492-2. Archivedfrom the original on December 15, 2019. Retrieved December 18, 2019.
- ^ Manuel, Bruce (May 9, 2012). "Nominees announced for Northern California Book Awards". The Mercury News. Archived from the original on May 28, 2018. Retrieved May 27, 2018.
- ^ Miscolta, Donna (March 4, 2013). "An Interview with Deborah Miranda". Donna Miscolta. Archived from the original on May 28, 2018. Retrieved May 27, 2018.
- ^ "Deborah A. Miranda - Professor of English". Washington and Lee University. Archived from the original on August 15, 2018. Retrieved May 27, 2018.
- ^ Thursby, Keith (January 3, 2011). "John Olguin dies at 89; director of San Pedro's Cabrillo Marine Museum". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on February 16, 2018. Retrieved May 27, 2018.
- ^ Vinsel, Arthur (January 23, 2011). "Salute on Sand Draws 1,000-plus to John Olguin Rites". Palos Verdes Patch. Archived from the original on January 31, 2013. Retrieved May 27, 2018.
- ISBN 978-1-55546-700-5
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- ^ "Image / Rafael Solares, a Santa Inez Chumash man, 1878. Hayward & Muzzall, photographic ..." Calisphere - University of California. 1878. Archived from the original on May 28, 2018. Retrieved May 27, 2018.
- ^ Johnson, John R. (1982). "The Trail to Fernando". Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology: 132–37.
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- ISBN 978-0-395-63336-6.
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- ^ Bardolph, Dana N. (December 1, 2018). ""A Song of Resilience": Exploring Communities of Practice in Chumash Basket Weaving in Southern California". Dana N. Bardolph Ph.D. Retrieved November 23, 2023.
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- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on June 16, 2015. Retrieved September 6, 2014.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ "Collections – Channel Islands National Park (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Archived from the original on October 14, 2014.
- ^ "Santa Cruz Island – Channel Islands National Park (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Archived from the original on August 5, 2011.
- ^ "Santa Rosa Island - Channel Islands National Park (U.S. National Park Service)". Archived from the original on October 14, 2014. Retrieved September 6, 2014.
- ^ "Santa Ynez Reservation". www.santaynezchumash.org. Archived from the original on July 23, 2014. Retrieved September 6, 2014.
References
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- Gamble, L. H., & Enki Library eBook. (2008). The chumash world at European contact (1st ed.). Us: University of California Press. Retrieved from http://sjpl.enkilibrary.org/EcontentRecord/11197
- Glassow, Michael A., Lynn H. Gamble, Jennifer E. Perry, and Glenn S. Russell. 2007. Prehistory of the Northern California Bight and the Adjacent Transverse Ranges. In California Prehistory: Colonization, Culture, and Complexity. Terry L. Jones and Kathryn A. Klar, editors. New York and Plymouth UK: Altamira Press.
- Hogan, C. Michael. 2008. Morro Creek. Ed. A. Burnham.
- Jones, Terry L.; Klar, Kathryn A. (2005). "Diffusionism Reconsidered: Linguistic and Archaeological Evidence for Prehistoric Polynesian Contact with Southern California". American Antiquity. 70 (3): 457–484. S2CID 161301055.
- King, Chester D. 1991. Evolution of Chumash Society: A Comparative Study of Artifacts Used for Social System Maintenance in the Santa Barbara Channel Region before A.D. 1804. New York and London, Garland Press.
- Kroeber, A. L. 1925. Handbook of the Indians of California. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 78. Washington, D.C.
- McLendon, Sally and John R. Johnson. 1999. Cultural Affiliation and Lineal Descent of Chumash Peoples in the Channel Islands and the Santa Monica Mountains. 2 volumes. Prepared for the Archeology and Ethnography Program, National Park Service by Hunter College, City University of New York and the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History.
- Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23228-9.
- Pritzker, Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-19-513877-1.
- Pritzker, Barry M. (2014). Chumash. In The American Mosaic: The American Indian Experience. Retrieved February 25, 2014, from http://americanindian2.abc-clio.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/
Sandos J. Christianization among the Chumash: an ethnohistoric perspective. American Indian Quarterly [serial online]. Winter91 1991;15:65–89. Available from: OmniFile Full Text Mega (H.W. Wilson), Ipswich, MA. Accessed March 22, 2014.
- Santa Barbara Independent. (2010, December 15). Chumash foundation $10,000 grant helps food bank serve healthy meals.
- Timbrook, J.; Johnson, J. R.; Earle, D. D. (1982). "Vegetation burning by the chumash". Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology. 4 (2): 163–186. JSTOR 27825120.
- Chumash Tribe sued over casino expansion
Further reading
- Black Gold Library System, 1997, Native Americans of the Central Coast (historic photographs). Ventura, CA, Black Gold Libraries
- Hudson, D. Travis and Thomas C. Blackburn. 1982–7. The Material Culture of the Chumash Interaction Sphere Volumes I–V. Anthropological Papers No. 25-31. Menlo Park, CA: Ballena Press.
- Hudson, D. Travis, Thomas Blackburn, Rosario Curletti and Janice Timbrook. 1977. The Eye of the Flute: Chumash Traditional History and Ritual as Told by Fernando Librado Kitsepawit to John P. Harrington. Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History.
- Hudson, D. Travis, Janice Timbrook, and Melissa Rempe. 1977. Tomol: Chumash Watercraft as Described in the Ethnographic Notes of John P. Harrington. Anthropological Papers No. 9, edited by Lowell J. Bean and Thomas C. Blackburn. Socorro, NM: Ballena Press.
External links
- Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians
- Inezeño Chumash Language Tutorial
- Coastal Band of the Chumash Nation
- Antelope Valley Indian Museum at California Department of Parks and Recreation
- Native Cultures and the Maritime Heritage Program, NOAA
- Barbareno Chumash Council Archived January 20, 2022, at the Wayback Machine
- Northern Chumash Tribal Council
- Chumash Painted Cave State Historic Park
- Chumash Singer and Storyteller Julie Tumamait-Stenslie Archived 2009-01-02 at the Wayback Machine
- Chumash Indian Museum, Thousand Oaks, CA Archived November 26, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
- Map of Chumash towns at the time of European Settlement
- "Wishtoyo Foundation's Chumash Discovery Village, Malibu, CA". Archived from the original on December 22, 2012.