Early Pagan Kingdom
Early Kingdom of Bagan ခေတ်ဦး ပုဂံ ပြည် | |||||||||
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c. 650 CE–1044 | |||||||||
Capital | Arimaddana, Thiri Pyissaya, Tampawaddy, Pagan (Bagan) | ||||||||
Common languages | Burmese | ||||||||
Religion | Buddhism, animism, Hinduism | ||||||||
Government | Monarchy | ||||||||
• 107–152 CE (chronicles) | Thamoddarit | ||||||||
• 167–242 (chronicles) | Pyusawhti | ||||||||
• 613–640 (chronicles) | Popa Sawrahan | ||||||||
• 846–886 | Pyinbya | ||||||||
• 956–1001 | Nyaung-u Sawrahan | ||||||||
Historical era | Classical Antiquity | ||||||||
• Foundation | c. 650 CE | ||||||||
• ThiriPyissaya founded | 344–387 (chronicles) | ||||||||
• Tampawaddy founded | 516–523 (chronicles) | ||||||||
• Burmese calendar launched | 21 March 640 (chronicles) | ||||||||
• Pagan founded | 23 December 849 | ||||||||
• Disestablished | 16 December 1044 | ||||||||
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The Early Pagan Kingdom (
Chronicle tradition
Formation
Various Burmese chronicles do not agree on the date of foundation of Pagan. One of the earliest chronicles,
Still according to the standard chronicles, Thamoddarit fixed the capital at
According to
names.Era | Name | Meaning |
---|---|---|
Era of Kakusandha Buddha
|
Pandupalāsh(पाण्डुपलाश) | The withered foliage |
Era of Koṇāgamana Buddha
|
Dharmakuṭī( धर्मकुटी ) | House of Righteousness |
Era of Kassapa Buddha | Tambadvipa( तांबाद्वीप ) | land of the Bronze |
Era of Gautama Buddha
|
Arimardan( अरिमर्दन ) | Foe-crusher |
Thamoddarit then appointed
The chronicles continue that King Thili Kyaung I (r. 344–387) moved the palace to Thiri Pyissaya, not far from the Pugama site. In 439, King Thihtan died without leaving an heir, and the throne was contested among three senior ministers at the court. The victor of the power struggle, the minister Thuye ruled until his death in 494. The Pyusawhti line was restored when King Tharamon Phya, a grandson of Thihtan, was put in power by the court. Tharamon Phya's successor Thaik Taing (r. 516–523) moved the palace to Tampawaddy, near Thiri Pyissaya.[6]
The following is the list of Pagan kings as given in the main chronicles.[7]
Name | Reign per Zatadawbon Yazawin | Reign per Maha Yazawin, Yazawin Thit, and Hmannan Yazawin | Relationship with the predecessor |
---|---|---|---|
Thamoddarit | 80–125 | 107–152 | Nephew of Thupyinnya of Sri Ksetra |
Yathekyaung | 125–140 | 152–167 | Caretaker |
Pyusawhti | 140–222 | 167–242 | Son-in-law of Thamoddarit |
Hti Min Yin | 222–249 | 242–299 | Son |
Yin Min Paik | 249–334 | 299–324 | Son |
Paik Thinli | 334–371 | 324–344 | Son |
Thili Kyaung I | 371–415 | 344–387 | Son |
Kyaung Tu Yit | 415–440 | 387–412 | Son |
Thihtan | 440–477 | 412–439 | Son |
Thuye | 477–492 | 439–494 | Usurper |
Tharamon Phya | 492–514 | 494–516 | Grandson of Thihtan |
Thaik Taing | 514–521 | 516–523 | Son |
Thinli Kyaung II | 521–530 | 523–532 | Son |
Thinli Paik | 530–535 | 532–547 | Brother |
Khan Laung | 535–545 | 547–557 | Brother |
Khan Lat | 545–557 | 557–569 | Brother |
Htun Taik | 557–570 | 569–582 | Son |
Htun Pyit | 570–586 | 582–598 | Son |
Htun Chit | 586–613 | 598–613 | Son |
Middle Early Pagan
The next important king was
All four main chronicles are in agreement with the regnal dates in this period.[7]
Name | Reign per Zatadawbon Yazawin, Maha Yazawin, Yazawin Thit, and Hmannan Yazawin | Relationship with the predecessor |
---|---|---|
Popa Sawrahan | 613–640 | Usurper |
Shwe Ohnthi | 640–652 | Son-in-law |
Peit Thon | 652–660 | Brother |
Peit Taung | 660–710 | Son |
Min Khwe | 710–716 | Brother |
Myingyway | 716–726 | Usurper |
Theinga | 726–734 | Elected by court; of royal blood |
Thein Khun | 734–744 | Son |
Shwe Laung | 744–753 | Son |
Htun Htwin | 753–762 | Son |
Shwe Hmauk | 762–785 | Son |
Htun Lut | 785–802 | Brother |
Saw Khin Hnit | 802–829 | Son |
Khelu | 829–846 | Son |
Late Early Pagan
After Pyinbya's successor and son Tannet died in 904 CE, the throne passed on to a series of usurpers for nearly a century to 1001 CE.[Note 3] Nyaung-u Sawrahan (r. 956–1001), the earliest inscriptionally verified king, ruled for 45 years. A descendant of Pyusawhti, Kunhsaw Kyaunghpyu restored the old royal line in 1001 but 20 years later, he was pushed out by the sons of Nyaung-u Sawrahan. In 1044, Anawrahta, son of Kunhsaw Kyaunghpyu, defeated Sokkate, son of Nyaung-u Sawrahan, in single combat and seized the throne.[10]
The chronicles again do not agree with the dates for this period. The dates in later chronicles Yazawin Thit and Hmannan Yazawin now depart from Maha Yazawin dates from 846 CE forward.[7]
Name | Reign per Zatadawbon Yazawin | Reign per Maha Yazawin | Reign per Yazawin Thit and Hmannan Yazawin | Relationship with predecessor(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pyinbya | 846–886 | 846–858 | 846–878 | Brother |
Tannet | 886–904 | 858–876 | 878–906 | Son |
Sale Ngahkwe | 904–934 | 876–901 | 906–915 | Usurper |
Theinhko | 934–956 | 901–917 | 915–931 | Son |
Nyaung-u Sawrahan | 956–1001 | 917–950 | 931–964 | Usurper |
Kunhsaw Kyaunghpyu | 1001–1021 | 950–971 | 964–986 | Son of Tannet |
Kyiso | 1021–1038 | 971–977 | 986–992 | Son of Nyaung-u Sawrahan |
Sokkate | 1038–1044 | 977–1002 | 992–1017 | Brother |
Scholarship
A settlement in the Pyu realm
Modern scholarship, however, holds that the Pagan dynasty was founded by the
The earliest human settlement at Pagan is radiocarbon dated to c. 650 CE. But evidence is inconclusive to prove that it was specifically a Burman settlement, not just another Pyu settlement.[13] The 7th century settlement was part of the Pyu realm, which by then had been in existence in the Irrawaddy valley since the 2nd century BCE. (Archaeological evidence shows that as early as the 2nd century BCE, the Pyu had built water-management systems along secondary streams in central and northern parts of the Irrawaddy basin and had founded one of Southeast Asia's earliest urban centres. By the early centuries CE, several walled cities and towns had emerged. The architectural and artistic evidence indicates the Pyu realm's contact with Indian culture by the 4th century CE. The city-states boasted kings and palaces, moats and massive wooden gates, and always 12 gates for each of the signs of the zodiac, one of the many enduring patterns that would continue until the British occupation. Sri Ksetra emerged as the premier Pyu city-state in the 7th century CE. Although the size of the city-states and the scale of political organisation grew during the 7th to early 9th centuries, no sizeable kingdom had yet emerged by the 9th century.[11][14])
Arrival of the Mranma
According to
Despite the legendary nature of both pre-Buddhist and Hmannan's Buddhist-inspired stories, a historical Pyusawhti likely existed. Historians conjecture that the historical Pyusawhti was likely a minor chief of the
The Pagan "kingdom" Pyusawhti led was likely a small settlement among many other small settlements in the area. (The chronicles count 19 settlements.) In the 8th century, Pagan was not yet a city or even a city-state, let alone a "kingdom". The city was merely one of several competing city-states until the 10th century.[22] Furthermore, the 38 kings of Pagan Dynasty—from Pyusawhti to Sokkate, prior to the historically verified king Anawrahta—were probably contemporary chiefs of the Pagan area's settlements. According to the British colonial era historian GE Harvey, the Burmese chroniclers likely arranged the lists of rulers of early Burmese polities consecutively, "wishing to portray a continuous lineage stretching back to divine antiquity."[23]
However, some scholars believe that Burmans had arrived in Myanmar much earlier than the mainstream opinion holds. Htin Aung contends that the arrival of Burmans may have been a few centuries earlier, perhaps the early 7th century.[Note 4] Historians Michael Aung-Thwin and Matrii Aung-Thwin write that the 19 villages that first formed the city of Pagan according to the chronicles are "probably" "legendary" but "the origins of the Burmese speakers in Myanmar may well be earlier than, and had nothing to do with, the Nanzhao raid of AD 832".[24]
Thant Myint-U summarises the mainstream opinion that "the Nanzhao Empire had washed up on the banks of the Irrawaddy, and would find a new life, fused with an existing and ancient culture, to produce one of the most impressive little kingdoms of the medieval world. From this fusion would result the Burmese people, and the foundations of modern Burmese culture."[19]
Rise of Pagan
Evidence shows that the actual pace of Burman migration into the Pyu realm was gradual. Indeed, no firm indications have been found at Sri Ksetra or at any other Pyu site to suggest a violent overthrow. Radiocarbon dating shows that human activity existed until c. 870 at Halin, the Pyu city reportedly destroyed by an 832 Nanzhao raid.[25] The region of Pagan received waves of Burman settlements in the mid-to-late 9th century, and perhaps well into the 10th century. By the mid-10th century, Burmans at Pagan had expanded irrigation-based cultivation while borrowing extensively from the Pyus' predominantly Buddhist culture. Pagan's early iconography, architecture and scripts suggest little difference between early Burman and Pyu cultural forms. Moreover, no sharp ethnic distinction between Burmans and linguistically linked Pyus seems to have existed.[22]
Starting in the late 10th century, the principality grew in authority and grandeur.
See also
- Pagan kings family tree
- Pagan Kingdom
- Pyu city-states
- Sri Ksetra Kingdom
- Tagaung Kingdom
Notes
- ^ (Yazawin Kyaw 2010: 139–140): Pagan was founded 700 years after the death of the Buddha.
- ^ (Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 143): The calendar was reset, leaving two years, in year 640 CE. The starting date of the Burmese calendar was 22 March 638; Year 2 of the Burmese calendar began on 21 March 640 per (Eade 1989: 39).
- ^ (Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 346–349): Dates per Zatadawbon Yazawin, the most accurate chronicle for early Pagan dates.
- ^ (Htin Aung 1967: 367): "Emergence of the Burmese" c. 600 CE. (Htin Aung 1970: 11–15): The chapter titled "The Coming of the Burmese" picks apart Luce's 9th century Nanzhao theory, and seems to indicate an even earlier arrival date than the 600 CE date he proposed in (Htin Aung 1967).
- ^ (Aung-Thwin 2005: 167–178, 197–200): The earliest Burmese script (the copper-gilt umbrella inscription of the Mahabodhi Temple) is dated to 1035. If a recast 18th century copy of an original stone inscription is permissible as evidence, the Burmese script had already been in use at least since 984 CE.
See also
References
- ^ Maha Yazawin 2006: 132–133
- ^ Than Tun 1964: ix–x
- ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 133–134
- ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 136
- ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 135–138
- ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 139–141
- ^ a b c Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 343–347
- ^ Hall 1960: 8–10
- ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 143–146
- ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 147–154
- ^ a b Myint-U 2006: 44–45
- ^ Hall 1960: 7
- ^ Aung-Thwin 2005: 185
- ^ Lieberman 2003: 89
- ^ Moore 2007: 236
- ^ Harvey 1925: 3
- ^ Hall 1960: 11
- ^ Lieberman 2003: 90
- ^ a b Myint-U 2006: 56–57
- ^ Aung-Thwin 1985: 205
- ^ Harvey 1925: 308
- ^ a b c Lieberman 2003: 90–91
- ^ Harvey 1925: 364
- ^ Aung-Thwin et al 2012: 77–78
- ^ Aung-Thwin 2005: 36–37
- ^ Aung-Thwin 1985: 21
- ^ Aung-Thwin 2005: 38
- ^ Harvey 1925: 24–25
Bibliography
- Aung-Thwin, Michael A. (2005). The Mists of Rāmañña: The Legend that was Lower Burma (illustrated ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 9780824828868.
- Aung-Thwin, Michael A.; Maitrii Aung-Thwin (2012). A History of Myanmar Since Ancient Times (illustrated ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-1-86189-901-9.
- Eade, J.C. (1989). Southeast Asian Ephemeris: Solar and Planetary Positions, A.D. 638–2000. Ithaca: Cornell University. ISBN 0-87727-704-4.
- Hall, D.G.E. (1960). Burma (3rd ed.). Hutchinson University Library. ISBN 978-1-4067-3503-1.
- Harvey, G. E. (1925). History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.
- Htin Aung, Maung (1967). A History of Burma. New York and London: Cambridge University Press.
- Htin Aung, Maung (1970). Burmese History before 1287: A Defence of the Chronicles. Oxford: The Asoka Society.
- Kala, U (1724). Maha Yazawin Gyi (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3 (2006, 4th printing ed.). Yangon: Ya-Pyei Publishing.
- Lieberman, Victor B. (2003). Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80496-7.
- Maha Thilawuntha, Shin (1928). Pe Maung Tin (ed.). Yazawin Kyaw (in Burmese) (4th printing, 2010 ed.). Yangon: Burma Research Society (original publisher), Ya-Pyei (4th printing).
- Moore, Elizabeth H. (2007). Early Landscapes of Myanmar. Bangkok: River Books. ISBN 978-974-9863312.
- Myint-U, Thant (2006). The River of Lost Footsteps—Histories of Burma. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-16342-6.
- Royal Historical Commission of Burma (1832). Hmannan Yazawin (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3 (2003 ed.). Yangon: Ministry of Information, Myanmar.
- Than Tun (1964). Studies in Burmese History (in Burmese). Vol. 1. Yangon: Maha Dagon.