Gender system
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Gender systems are the
Gender binary
Gender binary is the classification of sex and gender into two distinct, opposite, and disconnected forms of masculine and feminine. Gender binary is one general type of a gender system. Sometimes in this binary model, "sex", "gender" and "sexuality" are assumed by default to align.[2]
Gender systems around the world
In cultures where the gender binary is prominent and important, transgender people are a major exception to the societal norms related to gender.[3] Intersex people, those who cannot be biologically determined as either male or female, are another obvious deviation. Other cultures have their own practices independent of the Western gender binary.
Native American
When European settlers first arrived in North America, they discovered different Native American nations had different concepts of sex and gender. In the Native North American society "
The Mohave Alyha
In Mohave society, pregnant women believed they had dreams forecasting the anatomic sex of their children. These dreams also sometimes included hints of their child's future gender variant status. A boy who "acted strangely" before he participated in the boys' puberty ceremonies in the Mohave nation would be considered for the transvestite ceremony. Expressing interest in dolls, the domestic work of women, women's gambling games, and inquiring about the female skirt were all ways a boy may be considered for the transvestite ceremony. Before the ceremony, relatives would try to dissuade him, but if the boy persists, they would assist in the preparations for the ceremony. The ceremony itself was meant to surprise the boy. It was a test of willingness. Other nearby settlements would receive word to come and watch. A circle of onlookers would sing special songs. If the boy danced like a woman, it confirmed his status as an alyha. He was then taken to a river to bathe, and was given a skirt to wear. The ceremony would permanently change his gender status within the nation. He then took up a female name. The alyha would imitate many aspects of female life, including
: 21–23Juchitán, Oaxaca, Mexico
This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. (June 2011) |
A documentary film entitled
Machi (Mapuche Shamans) of Chile
This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. (June 2011) |
The machi are the shamans of the Mapuche people of Chile, and are viewed to a large extent by both Mapuche and the Chilean state as keepers of Mapuche political, cultural, and spiritual tradition and power. In many ways the machi represent an alternative gender system in that homosexual acts are more accepted, gender switching occurs, and the practice of polygamy took place.[6]: 322–343 However, though it appears there is more gender freedom, gender switching occurs based on different shamanic practices performed, and the gender associated with the practice is either derived from physical sex based on reproduction, etc., or from the hegemonic gender system of the nation of Chile. For example, political participation has become a masculine practice, while spiritual practices are considered feminine. While one does not have to be a physical "male" or "female" necessarily to perform these practices, they must channel that gender to perform them.
The machi were inevitably influenced by the dominant Western gender system of Chile through state sponsored evangelization, (most Mapuche today are
Indian Hindu
In
Hijras
This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. (June 2011) |
"The recognition of more than two sex/genders is recorded in India as early as the eighth century BCE".[4]: 29 In modern India, the term hijra is most commonly meant as "eunuch" or intersexed, and is a term of sexual impotence. In the culture's definition, a hijra is one born as a male, but adopts the clothing, behavior, and occupations of women. Their status in society is neither male nor female, neither man nor woman. When hijras are asked whether or not they are male or female, most often they respond with comments like "We hijras are like women",[1]: xxiii demonstrating their place in culture. Hijras walk, gesture, speak, and use facial expressions more common to women in India. They even take feminine names as part of their gender transformation. Becoming a Hijra however is not outside of Indian society. Being a hijra means making a commitment that gives social support and some economic security, as well as a cultural meaning, linking them to the larger world.[1]: 54
"A male who is not born biologically intersexed who wishes to become a hijra must transform his sex/gender through an emasculation operation".[4]: 29 This operation is a rebirth for the hijras, and contains elements of childbirth to symbolize this. The process includes castration, bloodletting, and special rituals.[4]: 33 Among the hijra society there is a hierarchy of gurus, or teachers, and chelas, or disciples.[1]: 42 In order for one to be accepted into the hijra society they must be sponsored by a guru, who in turn teaches them and helps them form a family.
As of November 11, 2013, the country of Bangladesh has decided to begin a third gender birth certificate.[7]
Sādhin
The sādhin are similar to Hijras culturally. Their development is quite different however, and their existence is much less prominent. It is a girl's choice to become a sādhin. They wear men's clothing and keep their hair short. They commonly keep their female name and are still treated as a female in society, although the status of sādhin, like hijra, transcends the gender labels of India. A sādhin candidate must be a virgin, and swear to celibacy.[4]: 40, 41
Brazil
Like in Indian culture, some subcultures in Brazil follow a gender binary that differs from the traditional Western one. Rather than men and women, certain areas of Brazil have men and not-men. Men are masculine, and anyone who displays feminine qualities falls under the category of not-man. This concept is a result of sexual penetration as the deciding factor of gender. Any one who is penetrated becomes feminine, and is not-male. Everyone else, regardless of sexual preference, remains a male in Brazilian society.
Some older authors [4]: 47 [8] describe travestis as:
- Existing outside a religious context unlike in native North America and India.
- Making an individual choice to become a travesti.
- Born as males, they go to extensive measures to try to appear female with some injecting silicone implantsto more closely imitate the curves of the Brazilian female body.
- Not not identifying as female and not wishing to become female.
- Living in a culture that is based on this man/not-man premise and (unlike the genitalia.
- Feeling that castration would not get them any closer to becoming a woman.
- Having a view of homosexuality that follows the man/not-man binary. If a travesti has a boyfriend, that man is not considered a homosexual, because the travesti is not a man. If, at any time, the boyfriend expresses interest in the travesti penis, the travesti will immediately lose interest in him as a partner because he has also become a "not-man".
Some activist organizations of travestis disagree with such statements and describe travesti as:[9]
A person who is born in the male or female sex but who has a gender identity opposite to their biological sex, assuming gender roles different from those imposed by society. Many travestis modify their bodies through hormone therapy, silicone injections and/or plastic surgeries. However, it's important to highlight that this is not a rule for all travestis. (definition adopted by the National LGBT Conference in 2008).
Differently from transsexuals, travestis do not with to go through with gender reassignment surgery (change of the genital organ).
When talking about travestis (those who have feminine, boobs, bodies, clothes, hair and/or shape), the feminine gender article "A" should be used. It is incorrect to use the masculine article, e.g. "O travesti Maria" because this is referring to a person of the feminine gender.
In 2020, the State of São Paulo published a booklet with the following definition:[10]: 22
Travesti: a person who is born with the male sex and has a feminine gender identity. She has no discomfort with her biological sex of birth, nor with the ambiguity in female and male body traces, assuming a gender identity different from that imposed by society.
Many travestis modify their bodies through hormone therapies, silicone injections and/or plastic surgeries, but, in general, they do not with to undergo the gender reassignment surgery (known as "sex change").
Naples and Southern Italy
It is often considered reductive to insert the Neapolitan femminiello within the macro-category of transgender usually adopted in Anglo-Saxon and North American contexts. The femminiello, instead, could be considered as a peculiar gender expression, despite a widespread sexual binarism. The cultural roots of this phenomenon confer to the femminiello a cultural and even socially legitimized status. For the historical and symbolic coordinates of Naples, the identity construct of the femminiello is not superimposable to more common European and euro-centric transgender clusters.[13]
The femminiello in
Polynesia
In Polynesia there are many different terms for gender roles, for example in Tahiti the role is called māhū. In Samoa the male gender variant is called faʻafafine which means "like a woman". Tuva and Tonga have terms also. In Tonga the term is fakaleiti and in Tuva the term is pinapinnaine. All of these terms are used when a male engages in women's work, clothes, speech tones, and nonverbal gestures. However, in Polynesia when a man crosses genders and "acts like a woman" he is not viewed as becoming a woman, but is suspended between male and female, being neither at the same time, but having the elements of both.[4]: 57–70 They tend to be effeminate and interested in women's household tasks, but do not dress exclusively as women. They often seek oral sex with men, who may ridicule them in public, but seek them out for pleasure in private.[19]: 334
Thailand
Philippines
The notable gender variant role in the Philippines is the
The cultural definition of homosexuality
In cultures where the difference between male and female in the gender binary is masculine and feminine, it is important to look at how same-sex sexuality changes between cultures. In some cultures, like the travesti, homosexual behavior moves one from one part of a gender binary to another.
Homosexuality, and its effects on the individual's place in society is sometimes drastically different in various other cultures. In certain
In Basotho society in contemporary Lesotho, girls and women may exchange long kisses, engage in cunnilingus, and even fall in love and form a marriage-like union. In this society however, sex requires penetration, and marriage requires a man as a husband. Therefore, in this context, there is no concept of lesbianism.[19]: 336
The Alternative Model of Gender
In "The Five Sexes: Why Male and Female Are Not Enough", Anne Fausto-Sterling explores the possibilities of the intersex and how these individuals fit into the traditional labeling of "male" and "female". Her "Alternative Model of Gender" is a proposition that allows for the inclusion of intersexual individuals into the traditional gender labeling system. Anne Fausto-Sterling proposes that a body does not necessarily have to fit into the orthodox gender binary set by a society, but rather can be categorized under the possibility of male, female, merm, ferm, and herm, which are labels given to individuals born with a variation in sex characteristics. Fausto-Sterling's "Of Gender and Genitals" discuses the fate of the individuals born with "ambiguous" genitalia and the need to surgically correct the deviations these individuals propel into a male-female society. She explores the need for allowing the body to be labeled as is, rather than configuring it into the expectations of society, as the traditional binary gender labeling calls for. The Alternative Model allows for this type of gender labeling as well as to be comprehended in terms of behavioral, biological, and mental characteristics.[21][22][23]
Gendered violence
Gendered violence is a worldwide issue that can take place in different forms with varying consequences. It can be similar to a
See also
- Gender and Sexual Diversity
- Transsexualism
- Transgender
- Transgender rights movement
- Intersexuality
References
- ^ a b c d Nanda, Serena. Neither Man nor Woman: the Hijras of India. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Pub., 1990. Print.
- ^ Keating, Anne. "glbtq >> literature >> Gender". www.glbtq.com. glbtq: An Encyclopedia of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Culture. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
- PMID 27708501.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Nanda, Serena. Gender Diversity: Crosscultural Variations. Waveland Press, 1999. Print.
- ^ Blossoms of Fire. Lydia Nibley. Say Yes Quickly Productions, Riding the Tiger Productions, and Just Media, 2010. DVD.
- ^ a b c Bacigalupo, Ana Mariella. "Mapuche Shamanic Bodies and the Chilean State: Polemic Gendered Representation and Indigenous Responses". Violence and the Body: Race, Gender, and the State. Ed. A.J. Aldama. Bloomington Indiana: Indiana University Press. 2003.
- ^ "Bangladesh's Hijras Win Official Recognition as Separate Gender". online article. Global Voices. Archived from the original on June 9, 2015. Retrieved 27 November 2013.
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: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ISSN 0002-7294.
- ^ "Manual de comunicação LGBT" [LGBT Communications Manual] (PDF). www.abglt.org.br. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 October 2016.
- ISBN 978-85-68471-05-0.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ a b Fulvio, Bufi (2009). "Presa Ketty, boss "femminiello" Comandava i pusher di Gomorra". Corriere della Sera (February 13, 2009): 19. Archived from the original on September 14, 2015.
FEMMINIELLO E' UNA FIGURA OMOSESSUALE (..) È UNA PERSONA DALL' ASPETTO EFFEMINATO O SPESSO UN TRAVESTITO. E' RISPETTATO E GENERALMENTE IL FEMMINIELLO VIENE CONSIDERATO UNA PERSONA CHE PORTA FORTUNA.
- ^ a b c Jeff Matthews. "The Femminiello in Neapolitan Culture". Archived from the original on 2011-05-15.
- ^ Hochdorn, Alexander, Paolo F. Cottone and Dania Vallini (2011). Gender and discursive positioning: Doing transgender in highly normative contexts. 69th Conference of the International Council of Psychologists. 29 July - 2 August 2011, Washington DC (USA) http://www.icpweb.org Archived 2012-03-04 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Il Santuario di Montevergine e la Candelora Archived 2012-01-27 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Traditional Dances - The Tummurriata". liceoumberto.eu. Archived from the original on 25 March 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
- ^ "I femminielli (Achille della Ragione)". www.guidecampania.com. Archived from the original on 10 May 2011. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
- ^ "Tombolata dei Femminielli: divertimento e tradizione ad Avellino". irpinianews.it. Archived from the original on 31 May 2013. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
- ^ Achille della Ragione. "I femminielli". Archived from the original on 2011-05-10.
Il napoletano, come dimostrano recenti statistiche, non vede di buon occhio l'omosessuale più o meno dichiarato, quello politically correct, che oggi, altrove, va tanto di moda ed è apparentemente accettato da una società ipocritamente buonista. Ma da noi il femminiello può vivere quasi sempre, soprattutto nei quartieri popolari, in una atmosfera accogliente, segnata dal consenso e dal buonumore.
- ^ a b Rupp, Leila J. "Toward a Global History of Same-Sex Sexuality." Journal of the History of Sexuality 10.2 (2001): pp. 287-302. Web.
- ^ a b Peoples, James G. "The Cultural Construction of Gender and Manhood." Men and Masculinity. 1st Edition ed.Cengage Learning, 2001. Print
- .
- ISBN 0-465-07714-5.
- ^ "Gender binary | Gender, Role, Facts, & Description | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-03-25.
- PMID 37138321.
- PMID 37138321.
- ISBN 978-0-07-802700-0.
- ^ Two Spirits. Lydia Nibley. Say Yes Quickly Productions, Riding the Tiger Productions, and Just Media, 2010. DVD.
- doi:10.1353/hyp.2006.0067 (inactive 2024-03-25).)
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: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of March 2024 (link
Bibliography
- Duberman, Martin. "Gender Diversity in Native North America: Notes toward a Unified Analysis". A Queer World. New York And London: New York University Press, 1997. 65. Print.
- Kulick, D. "The Gender of Brazilian Transgendered Prostitutes." American Anthropologist 99.3 (1997): 574–85.
- Nanda, Serena. Gender Diversity: Crosscultural Variations. Waveland Press, 1999. Print.
- Nanda, Serena. Neither Man nor Woman: the Hijras of India. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Pub., 1990. Print.
- Peoples, James G. "The Cultural Construction of Gender and Manhood." Men and Masculinity. 1st Edition ed.Cengage Learning, 2001. 9–18. Print.
- Rupp, Leila J. "Toward a Global History of Same-Sex Sexuality." Journal of the History of Sexuality 10.2 (2001): pp. 287–302. Web.