Bangladesh

Coordinates: 24°N 90°E / 24°N 90°E / 24; 90
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People's Republic of Bangladesh
গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ (Bengali)
Gôṇoprojātôntrī Bāṅglādesh
Emblem of Bangladesh
Emblem
Anthem: আমার সোনার বাংলা
Amar Sonar Bangla
"My Golden Bengal"
March: নতুনের গান
Notuner Gaan
"The Song of Youth"[1]
Slogan: জয় বাংলা
Joy Bangla
"Victory to Bengal"[2][3]
Official Seal of the Government of Bangladesh
  • Seal of the Government of Bangladesh
Capital
and largest city
Dhaka
23°45′50″N 90°23′20″E / 23.76389°N 90.38889°E / 23.76389; 90.38889
Official language
and national language
Bengali[4][5]
Minority languages
Ethnic groups
(2022[12])
98.2–99% Bengali
Religion
(
2022 census[16])
Demonym(s)Bangladeshi
GovernmentUnitary parliamentary republic[17]
• President
Mohammed Shahabuddin
Sheikh Hasina
Shirin Sharmin Chaudhury
Obaidul Hassan
LegislatureJatiya Sangsad
Independence 
26 March 1971
• Victory
16 December 1971
16 December 1972
Area
• Total
148,460[18] km2 (57,320 sq mi) (92nd)
• Water (%)
6.4
• Land area
130,170 km2[18]
• Water area
18,290 km2[18]
Population
• 2022 census
169,828,911[19][20] (8th)
• Density
1,165/km2 (3,017.3/sq mi) (12th)
GDP (PPP)2024 estimate
• Total
Increase $1.620 trillion[21] (25th)
• Per capita
Increase $9,410[22] (126th)
GDP (nominal)2024 estimate
• Total
Increase $455.166 billion[23] (34th)
• Per capita
Increase $2,650[24] (137th)
Gini (2022)Negative increase 49.9[25]
high
HDI (2022)Increase 0.670[26]
medium (129th)
CurrencyTaka () (BDT)
Time zoneUTC+6 (BST)
Driving sideleft
Calling code+880
ISO 3166 codeBD
Internet TLD.bd
.বাংলা

Bangladesh,[a] officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh,[b] is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world and is among the most densely populated countries with a population of nearly 170 million in an area of 148,460 square kilometres (57,320 sq mi). Bangladesh shares land borders with India to the north, west, and east, and Myanmar to the southeast. To the south, it has a coastline along the Bay of Bengal. It is narrowly separated from Bhutan and Nepal by the Siliguri Corridor, and from China by the mountainous Indian state of Sikkim in the north. Dhaka, the capital and largest city, is the nation's political, financial, and cultural centre. Chittagong, the second-largest city, is the busiest port on the Bay of Bengal. The official language of Bangladesh is Bengali.

Bangladesh forms the sovereign part of the historic and

referendum and the announcement of the Radcliffe Line
established the present-day territorial boundary.

In 1947,

Bangladesh Supreme Court reaffirmed secular principles in the constitution.[35]

A

.

Etymology

The etymology of Bangladesh ("Bengali country") can be traced to the early 20th century, when Bengali patriotic songs, such as Namo Namo Namo Bangladesh Momo by

Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak mentions in his Ain-i-Akbari that the addition of the suffix "al" came from the fact that the ancient rajahs of the land raised mounds of earth in lowlands at the foot of the hills which were called "al".[48] This is also mentioned in Ghulam Husain Salim's Riyaz-us-Salatin.[49] The Indo-Aryan suffix Desh is derived from the Sanskrit word deśha, which means "land" or "country". Hence, the name Bangladesh means "Land of Bengal" or "Country of Bengal".[44]

History

Ancient Bengal

The earliest form of the Bengali language developed during the Pala Empire, shown here on a map of Asia in 800 CE.

Pundra Kingdom mentioned in the Rigveda.[56][57] The oldest inscription in Bangladesh was found in Mahasthangarh and dates from the 3rd century BCE, written in the Brahmi script.[58]

Greek and Roman records of the ancient Gangaridai Kingdom, which (according to legend) deterred the invasion of Alexander the Great, are linked to the fort city in Wari-Bateshwar.[59][60] The site is also identified with the prosperous trading centre of Souanagoura listed on Ptolemy's world map.[61] Roman geographers noted a large seaport in southeastern Bengal, corresponding to the present-day Chittagong region.[62]

Ancient

Atisa travelled from Bengal to Tibet to preach Buddhism. The earliest form of the Bengali language emerged during the eighth century. Seafarers in the Bay of Bengal sailed and traded with Southeast Asia[64] and exported Buddhist and Hindu cultures to the region since the early Christian era.[65]

Islamic Bengal

The early history of Islam in Bengal is divided into two phases: the period of maritime trade with Arabia and Persia between the 8th and 12th centuries, and centuries of Muslim dynastic rule after the Islamic conquest of Bengal. The writings of

Abbasid coins have been discovered in the archaeological ruins of Paharpur and Mainamati.[69]

Sultanate period

Coin featuring a horseman issued after the Muslim conquest of Bengal.
Chinese manuscript showing an African giraffe gifted to China by the Sultan of Bengal on 20 September 1414.

The Muslim conquest of Bengal began with the 1204

Orissa in the south. During the reign of Sikandar Shah, Delhi recognised Bengal's independence. The Bengal Sultanate established a network of mint towns that acted as provincial capitals where the Sultan's currency was minted.[70] As Bengal became the easternmost frontier of the Islamic world, Bengali crystallized as an official court language, giving rise to various prominent writers. The sultanate was evolving as a commercialized and monetized economy and as a melting pot of Muslim political, mercantile and military elites.[71]

The two most prominent dynasties of the Bengal Sultanate were the

Brunei, Portuguese India, East Africa, Arabia, Persia, Mesopotamia, Yemen and the Maldives. The Sultans permitted the opening of the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong
.

The disintegration of the Bengal Sultanate began with the intervention of the

Suri Empire. Babur began invading Bengal after creating the Mughal Empire. The Bengal Sultanate collapsed with the overthrow of the Karrani dynasty during the reign of Akbar. However, the Bhati region of eastern Bengal continued to be ruled by aristocrats of the former Bengal Sultanate led by Isa Khan. They formed an independent federation called the Twelve Bhuiyans, with their capital in Sonargaon. The Bhuiyans ultimately succumbed to the Mughals after Musa Khan
was defeated.

Mughal period

The Mughals built riverside fortifications with musket holes like in Hajiganj Fort.
Sonakanda Fort is one of the Mughal riverside forts in Bangladesh.

The Mughal Empire controlled Bengal by the 17th century. Musa Khan of Bengal, the last independent ruler of Sonargaon after resisting Mughal conquest for several years on 10 July 1610 was defeated and dethroned by Islam Khan Chishti, the army general of Mughal Emperor Jahangir. Islam Khan Chisty became the first Mughal Subahdar of Bengal. After his defeat Musa Khan became loyal to the Mughal Empire. He actively participated in the conquest of Tripura and the suppression of revolt in Kamrup.[84]

The Mughals established Dhaka as a fort city and commercial metropolis. It was the capital of Bengal Subah for 75 years.[85] In 1666, the Mughals expelled the Arakanese from the port of Chittagong. Mughal Bengal attracted foreign traders for its muslin and silk goods, and the Armenians were a notable merchant community. A Portuguese settlement in Chittagong flourished in the southeast, and a Dutch settlement in Rajshahi existed in the north.[86] Bengal accounted for 40% of overall Dutch imports from Asia, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of raw silk.[87] The Bengal Subah, described as the Paradise of the Nations,[88] was a major global exporter,[87][89][90] a notable centre of worldwide industries such as muslin, cotton textiles, silk,[53] and shipbuilding.[91] Its citizens enjoyed one of the world's best living standards.[92]

During the 18th century, the

saltpetre production, craftsmanship, and agricultural produce. Bengal was a major hub for international trade, renowned for its silk and cotton textiles worldwide.[93][53] Bengal was also famed as a shipbuilding hub.[94]

Siraj-ud-Daulah
, the last independent Nawab of Bengal

Eastern Bengal was a thriving

Persianate culture was significant in Bengal, where cities like Sonargaon became the easternmost centres of Persian influence.[97][98]

In 1756, nawab

British East India Company by revoking their free trade rights and demanding the dismantling of their fortification in Calcutta. A military conflict culminated in the Battle of Plassey on 23 June 1757.[99] Robert Clive exploited rivalries within the nawab's family, bribing Mir Jafar, the nawab's uncle and commander in chief, to ensure Siraj-ud-Daula's defeat.[100][101] Clive rewarded Mir Jafar by making him nawab in place of Siraj-ud-Daula, but henceforth the position was a figurehead appointed and controlled by the company.[102][103] Historians often describe the battle as "the beginning of British colonial rule in South Asia".[104]

The Company replaced Mir Jafar with his son-in-law, Mir Kasim, in 1760. Mir Kasim challenged British control by allying with Mughal emperor Shah Alam II and the Nawab of Awadh, Shuja ud-Daulah, but the company decisively defeated the three at the Battle of Buxar on 23 October 1764.[101][103] The resulting treaty made the Mughal emperor a puppet of the British and gave the company the right to collect taxes (diwani) in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, giving them de facto control of the region.[103][105] The Company used Bengal's tax revenue to expand their territorial possession in rest of South Asia.[105]

British Bengal

European arrivals

Nawab of Bengal

The Bengal Sultanate permitted the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong to be established in 1528. It became the first European colonial enclave in Bengal. The Bengal Sultanate lost control of Chittagong in 1531 after Arakan declared independence and the established Kingdom of Mrauk U. Portuguese ships from Goa and Malacca began frequenting the port city in the 16th century. The cartaz system was introduced and required all ships in the area to purchase naval trading licenses from the Portuguese. Portuguese piracy in the sea flourished. The nearby island of Sandwip was captured in 1602. In 1615, the Portuguese Navy defeated a joint fleet of the Dutch East India Company and the Arakanese near the coast of Chittagong.

After 1534, the Bengal Sultan allowed the Portuguese to create several settlements at

Anglo-Mughal War took place in 1686.[108][109] By the 18th century, the British, French, Dutch, Danish and Austrian East India Companies built factories and trading posts across Bengal.[110][111][112][113] These companies obtained consent from the Nawabs of Bengal
for trading rights and concessions. The British East India Company became the most powerful among the European companies in Bengal.

British East India Company rule

Charles Cornwallis was responsible for enacting the Permanent Settlement
.

After the

deindustrialisation of Bengal's textile industry.[115] The capital amassed by the East India Company in Bengal was invested in the emerging Industrial Revolution in Great Britain.[116][117] Economic mismanagement, alongside drought and a smallpox epidemic, directly led to the Great Bengal famine of 1770, which is estimated to have caused the deaths of millions of people.[118][119][120][121] Several rebellions broke out during the early 19th century, as Company rule had displaced the Muslim ruling class from power. A conservative Islamic cleric, Haji Shariatullah, sought to overthrow the British by propagating Islamic revivalism.[122] Several towns in Bangladesh participated in the Indian Rebellion of 1857.[123]

British Raj

Bengal, Bihar, Awadh and Allahabad in 1786

After the 1857 rebellion, the

British parliament transferred India's administration from the company to the British government. Direct rule by the Crown was imposed. The British government took over all the administrative functions of the Bengal Presidency.[124]

At its maximum extent, the Bengal Presidency stretched from the

Malacca Straits
under British rule.

The Bengal Army played an important role in the expansion of

.

Arakan under the Bengal Presidency after the First Anglo-Burmese War led to the British annexation of Arakan.

The rebellion of 1857 upended the government of British India. The Straits Settlements were separated from Bengal and became a crown colony in 1867.[132] By the turn of the century, most of northern India was reorganized into separate provinces, including Punjab, the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, and Assam. In Burma, the Arakan region which bordered Bengal received many settlers. Agriculturalists from Chittagong played an important role in developing the rice economy in Burma. Arakan Division was one of the top rice exporters in the world, due in large part to agricultrualists from Chittagong.[133][134][135]

Within what is now Bangladesh, the trade networks of the British Empire brought traders and diplomats from far and wide.

tax-free river ports, such as the Port of Narayanganj, and large seaports like the Port of Chittagong
.

Bengal had the highest gross domestic product in British India, with the summer capital of Shillong boasting the highest per capita income in the subcontinent.[142] Bengal was one of the first regions in Asia to have a railway, which began operating in 1862.[143] The main railway companies in the region were the Eastern Bengal Railway and Assam Bengal Railway. Railways competed with waterborne transport to become one of the main means of transport.[144]

Lord Curzon oversaw the creation of Eastern Bengal and Assam
in 1905.

Supported by the Muslim aristocracy, the British government created the province of

All India Muslim League was formed in Dhaka in 1906. The British government reorganised the provinces in 1912, reuniting East and West Bengal and making Assam
a second province.

The Raj was slow to allow self-rule in the colonial subcontinent. It established the

British Burma
was also separated from British India in 1937.

All India Muslim League
in Dhaka in 1906.

Although it won most seats in 1937, the Bengal Congress boycotted the legislature.

H. S. Suhrawardy, who made a final futile effort for a United Bengal
in 1946, was the last premier of Bengal.

Partition of Bengal (1947)

British Bengal's last premier
H. S. Suhrawardy
speaking about partition

On 3 June 1947, the

fell on the Indian side close to the border with Pakistan.

Union with Pakistan

Section 144
prohibition on assembly during the Bengali Language Movement in early 1953
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (seated) at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy in the United States in 1958

The

Pakistani federation (led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who promised freedom of religion and secular democracy in the new state).[151][152]

Khawaja Nazimuddin was East Bengal's first

One Unit programme, and the province became a vital part of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
.

Pakistan adopted a new constitution in 1956. The

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 blocked cross-border transport links with neighbouring India in what is described as a second partition.[160] In 1966, Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman announced a six-point movement
for a federal parliamentary democracy.

According to senior

1969 uprising in East Pakistan which resulted in Ayub Khan's resignation. General Yahya Khan
assumed power, reintroducing martial law.

Ethnic and linguistic discrimination was common in Pakistan's civil and military services, in which Bengalis were under-represented.

).

War of Independence

In early 1971, negotiations began on the transfer of power.

pro-independence rally of nearly 2 million people on 7 March 1971, where he said, "This time the struggle is for our liberation. This time the struggle is for our independence".[176] The flag of Bangladesh was raised for the first time on 23 March, Pakistan's Republic Day.[177]

Museum of Independence, Dhaka

Around midnight on 26 March 1971, military operations under the code name of Operation Searchlight began.[178][179] The first targets were the student dormitories of Dhaka University, the police barracks in Dhaka's Rajarbagh locality, and Hindu neighbourhoods in Old Dhaka. The Pakistan Army arrested Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and flew him to a jail in West Pakistan.[180][181][182] The army burnt down the Ittefaq newspaper's office.[183] Before his arrest, Mujib proclaimed the independence of Bangladesh.[184][185] Pakistani forces launched a widespread campaign of killings, torture, rape, arson and destruction across East Pakistan, targeting segments of the population perceived to be pro-Awami League and pro-independence. The Hindu minority was distinctly targeted because of Pakistan's hostility with neighbouring Hindu-majority India.[186]

During the

Calcutta with the support of the Indian government until December 1971. The Bangladesh Armed Forces was formally established in November 1971, when Bengali forces secured control of much of the countryside. The Mukti Bahini forced the railway network to shut down to stop Pakistani troop movements. Some of the notable operations of the Mukti Bahini included Operation Jackpot and Operation Barisal
.

India intervened in the war on 3 December 1971, after Pakistan's failed pre-emptive air strikes on India's northwestern flank. With a joint ground advance by Bangladeshi and Indian forces, coupled with air strikes by both India and the small Bangladeshi air contingent, the capital Dhaka was liberated from Pakistani occupation in mid-December. During the last phase of the war, both the Soviet Union and the United States dispatched naval forces to the Bay of Bengal in a Cold War standoff. The nine-month-long war ended with the

surrender of the Pakistan Eastern Command to the Bangladesh-India Allied Forces on 16 December 1971.[187][188] Under international pressure, Pakistan released Mujib from imprisonment on 8 January 1972 and he was flown to a million-strong homecoming in Dhaka.[189][190] Remaining Indian troops were withdrawn by 12 March 1972.[191]

By August 1972, the new state was recognised by 86 countries.[192] Pakistan recognised Bangladesh in 1974 after pressure from most of the Muslim countries.[193]

The Liberation War Museum in Dhaka has many exhibits on the victims of the 1971 war.

The government of Bangladesh records the official death toll of the war at 3 million,

US Congress to "Recognize the Bangladesh Genocide of 1971".[211] The International Association of Genocide Scholars regards the atrocities as a genocide.[212][213]

Modern Bangladesh

First parliamentary era

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman with a commander of the Bangladesh Navy

The new government of Bangladesh transformed East Pakistan's state apparatus into an independent Bangladeshi state. The Awami League successfully reorganised the bureaucracy, framed a

written constitution, and rehabilitated war victims. In January 1972, Mujib introduced a parliamentary republic through a presidential decree.[214] On 12 January 1972 Mujib took oath and assumed office as Prime Minister of Bangladesh.[215] The emerging state structure was heavily influenced by the British Westminster model. The Constitution Drafting Committee led by Kamal Hossain established a bill of rights influenced by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[216]

The constituent assembly adopted the constitution of Bangladesh on 4 November 1972, establishing a secular, multiparty parliamentary democracy. Bangladesh joined the

Indo-Bangladesh enclaves. The land boundary agreement was challenged in court, which ruled that the government needed the prior approval of parliament to implement the land boundary treaty.[219] Mujib was a vocal supporter of Palestinian rights despite Israel being one of the first countries to recognize Bangladesh's independence. In what became Bangladesh's first dispatch of military aid overseas, Mujib sent an army medical unit to Egypt during the 1973 Arab-Israeli War.[220]

In economic policy, the first five years of Bangladesh was the only

nationalized 580 industrial plants, as well as banks and insurance companies. In 1974, the government invited international oil companies to explore the Bay of Bengal for oil and natural gas. Petrobangla was established as the national oil and gas corporation.[221] The Mujib government faced huge economic problems exacerbated by the resettlement of millions of people displaced in 1971, a breakdown in the food supply chain, poor health services and a lack of other necessities. The effects of the 1970 cyclone were still being felt, and the economy needed reconstruction after the war.[222] The Bangladesh famine of 1974
damaged Mujib's popularity.

Mujib presided over a regime that was built around his personality cult. Sycophants and loyalists developed an ideology called Mujibism.

Presidential era (1975–1991)

Ziaur Rahman (second from right) with members of the Dutch royal family in 1978

In January 1975, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman introduced

semi-presidential system evolved, with the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) governing until 1982. Rahman was assassinated in 1981 and was succeeded by vice-president Abdus Sattar.[225]

After a year in office, Sattar was overthrown in the

UN peacekeepers in 1988.[220] In 1990, Bangladesh joined the US-led coalition to liberate Kuwait during the Gulf War.[220][228] A mass uprising forced Ershad to resign, and Chief Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed led the country's first caretaker government as part of the transition to parliamentary rule.[225]

Parliamentary era (1991–present)

Khaleda Zia (standing second from right) with the Emir of Bahrain in 1994.
Sheikh Hasina with British Prime Minister David Cameron at 10 Downing Street in 2011.

After the 1991 general election, the twelfth amendment to the constitution restored the parliamentary republic, and

Burma took shelter in Bangladesh due to the suppression of the Burmese pro-democracy movement; most of these refugees returned to Burma by 1993.[224] In 1994, Bangladesh provided the largest non-US contingent in Operation Uphold Democracy, a military intervention in Haiti.[230]

In 1996, a year of political upheaval saw a

sharing the water of the Ganges.[231] In 1997, Sheikh Hasina hosted South Africa's first post-apartheid president Nelson Mandela, PLO chairman Yasser Arafat, and Turkish president Süleyman Demirel for the silver jubilee celebrations of Bangladesh's independence.[232][233]

The economic reform momentum lost steam due to political instability, including frequent hartals and strikes by the opposition. In 2001, the BNP returned to power on the back of promises to improve the economy. The second Zia administration saw higher economic growth, but security and political problems gripped the country between 2004 and 2006. A radical Islamist militant group, the JMB, carried out a series of terror attacks. At the end of the BNP's term in 2006, there was widespread political unrest. The Bangladeshi military urged President Iajuddin Ahmed to impose a state of emergency and a caretaker government, led by Fakhruddin Ahmed, was installed from January 2007 to December 2008 to implement reforms to the electoral system, judiciary, and bureaucracy.[229] The JMB leaders were arrested and later executed in March 2007.[234]

After achieving a landslide victory in the

Rohingya refugees took shelter in Cox's Bazar after a campaign of ethnic cleansing in Rakhine State, Myanmar.[243]

The national

green transition, Bangladesh's industrial sector emerged as a leader in building green factories, with the country having the largest number of certified green factories in the world in 2023.[252] In January 2024, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina secured her fourth straight term in Bangladesh's controversial general election, which was boycotted by the main opposition Bangladesh Nationalist Party.[253]

Geography

Physical map of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is in South Asia on the Bay of Bengal. It is surrounded almost entirely by neighbouring India, and shares a small border with Myanmar to its southeast, though it lies very close to Nepal, Bhutan, and China. The country is divided into three regions. Most of the country is dominated by the fertile Ganges Delta, the largest river delta in the world.[254] The northwest and central parts of the country are formed by the Madhupur and the Barind plateaus. The northeast and southeast are home to evergreen hill ranges.

The Ganges delta is formed by the confluence of the Ganges (local name

trans-boundary rivers, the most of any nation-state. Water issues are hence politically complicated since the country is a lower riparian state to India.[256]

Bangladesh is predominantly rich fertile flat land. Most of it is less than 12 m (39 ft) above sea level, and it is estimated that about 10% of its land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by 1 m (3.3 ft).[257] 17% of the country is covered by forests and 12% is covered by hill systems. The country's haor wetlands are of significance to global environmental science. The highest point in Bangladesh is the Saka Haphong, located near the border with Myanmar, with an elevation of 1,064 m (3,491 ft).[258] Previously, either Keokradong or Tazing Dong were considered the highest.

Administrative divisions

A clickable map of Bangladesh exhibiting its divisions.Rangpur DivisionRajshahi DivisionKhulna DivisionMymensingh DivisionDhaka DivisionBarisal DivisionSylhet DivisionChittagong Division
A clickable map of Bangladesh exhibiting its divisions.

Bangladesh is divided into eight administrative divisions,[259][258][260] each named after their respective divisional headquarters: Barisal (officially Barishal[261]), Chittagong (officially Chattogram[261]), Dhaka, Khulna, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, Rangpur, and Sylhet.

Divisions are subdivided into districts (zila). There are 64 districts in Bangladesh, each further subdivided into upazila (subdistricts) or thana. The area within each police station, except for those in metropolitan areas, is divided into several

unions
, with each union consisting of multiple villages. In the metropolitan areas, police stations are divided into wards, further divided into mahallas.

There are no elected officials at the divisional or district levels, and the administration is composed only of government officials. Direct elections are held in each union (or ward) for a chairperson and several members. In 1997, a parliamentary act was passed to reserve three seats (out of 12) in every union for female candidates.[262]

Administrative Divisions of Bangladesh
Division
Capital
Established Area (km2)
[263]
2021 Population
(projected)[264]
Density
2021
Barisal Division Barisal 1 January 1993 13,225 9,713,000 734
Chittagong Division Chittagong 1 January 1829 33,909 34,747,000 1,025
Dhaka Division Dhaka 1 January 1829 20,594 42,607,000 2,069
Khulna Division Khulna 1 October 1960 22,284 18,217,000 817
Mymensingh Division Mymensingh 14 September 2015 10,584 13,457,000 1,271
Rajshahi Division Rajshahi 1 January 1829 18,153 21,607,000 1,190
Rangpur Division Rangpur 25 January 2010 16,185 18,868,000 1,166
Sylhet Division Sylhet 1 August 1995 12,635 12,463,000 986

Climate

Flooding after the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone, which killed around 140,000 people

Straddling the

soil degradation and erosion. The cyclones of 1970 and 1991 were particularly devastating, the latter killing approximately 140,000 people.[267]

In September 1998, Bangladesh saw the

most severe flooding in modern history, after which two-thirds of the country went underwater, along with a death toll of 1,000.[268] As a result of various international and national level initiatives in disaster risk reduction, the human toll and economic damage from floods and cyclones have come down over the years.[269] The 2007 South Asian floods ravaged areas across the country, leaving five million people displaced, had a death toll around 500.[270]

Climate change

Bangladesh is recognised to be one of the countries most

Natural hazards that come from increased rainfall, rising sea levels, and tropical cyclones are expected to increase as the climate changes, each seriously affecting agriculture, water and food security, human health, and shelter.[274] It is estimated that by 2050, a three-foot rise in sea levels will inundate some 20 percent of the land and displace more than 30 million people.[275] To address the sea level rise threat in Bangladesh, the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 has been launched.[276][277]

Biodiversity

A Bengal tiger, the national animal, in the Sundarbans

Bangladesh is located in the

betel nut, coconut, and date palm.[279] The country has up to 6000 species of plant life, including 5000 flowering plants.[280] Water bodies and wetland systems provide a habitat for many aquatic plants. Water lilies and lotuses grow vividly during the monsoon season. The country has 50 wildlife sanctuaries
.

Bangladesh is home to much of the Sundarbans, the world's largest mangrove forest, covering an area of 6,000 square kilometres (2,300 sq mi) in the southwest littoral region. It is divided into three protected sanctuaries–the South, East, and West zones. The forest is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The northeastern Sylhet region is home to haor wetlands, a unique ecosystem. It also includes tropical and subtropical coniferous forests, a freshwater swamp forest, and mixed deciduous forests. The southeastern Chittagong region covers evergreen and semi-evergreen hilly jungles. Central Bangladesh includes the plainland Sal forest running along with the districts of Gazipur, Tangail, and Mymensingh. St. Martin's Island is the only coral reef in the country.

Bangladesh has an abundance of

Irrawaddy and Ganges dolphins.[284] The country has numerous species of amphibians (53), reptiles (139), marine reptiles (19) and marine mammals (5). It also has 628 species of birds.[285]

Several animals became extinct in Bangladesh during the last century, including the one-horned and two-horned

Sundarbans tiger project and the Bangladesh Bear Project are among the key initiatives to strengthen conservation.[283] It ratified the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 3 May 1994.[288] As of 2014, the country was set to revise its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.[288]

Politics and government

Viceroy of India and the Governor of Bengal
.
The National Parliament building in Sher-e-Bangla Nagar, a neighborhood named after the first Prime Minister of Bengal

Bangladesh is a de jure representative democracy under its constitution, with a Westminster-style parliamentary republic that has universal suffrage. The head of government is the Prime Minister, who forms a government every five years. The President invites the leader of the largest party in parliament to become Prime Minister.[289]

The

first past the post system and 50 MPs appointed to reserved seats for women's empowerment. Article 70 of the Constitution of Bangladesh forbids MPs from voting against their party. However, several laws proposed independently by MPs have been transformed into legislation, including the anti-torture law.[290] The parliament is presided over by the Speaker of the Jatiya Sangsad, who is second in line to the president as per the constitution.[291]

The Government of Bangladesh is overseen by a cabinet headed by the Prime Minister of Bangladesh. The tenure of a parliamentary government is five years. The Bangladesh Civil Service assists the cabinet in running the government. Recruitment for the civil service is based on a public examination. In theory, the civil service should be a meritocracy. But a disputed quota system coupled with politicisation and preference for seniority have allegedly affected the civil service's meritocracy.[292] The President of Bangladesh is the ceremonial head of state[293] whose powers include signing bills passed by parliament into law. The President is the Supreme Commander of the Bangladesh Armed Forces and the chancellor of all universities. The

High Court and Appellate Divisions. The head of the judiciary is the Chief Justice of Bangladesh, who sits on the Supreme Court. The courts have wide latitude in judicial review, and judicial precedent is supported by Article 111 of the constitution. The judiciary
includes district and metropolitan courts divided into civil and criminal courts. Due to a shortage of judges, the judiciary has a large backlog.

Military

World map, indicating where the Bangladeshi UN peacekeeping force is stationed
Map of Bangladesh UN Peacekeeping Force deployments

The Bangladesh Armed Forces have inherited the institutional framework of the

British military and the British Indian Army.[294] In 2022, the active personnel strength of the Bangladesh Army was around 250,000,[295] excluding the Air Force and the Navy (24,000).[296] In addition to traditional defence roles, the military has supported civil authorities in disaster relief and provided internal security during periods of political unrest. For many years, Bangladesh has been the world's largest contributor to UN peacekeeping forces. The military budget of Bangladesh accounts for 1.3% of GDP, amounting to US$4.3 billion in 2021.[297][298]

The

counter-terrorism cooperation and intelligence sharing. Bangladesh is vital to ensuring stability and security in northeast India.[300][301]

Bangladesh's strategic importance in the eastern subcontinent hinges on its proximity to China, its frontier with Burma, the separation of mainland and northeast India, and its maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal.[302] In 2002, Bangladesh and China signed a Defence Cooperation Agreement.[303] The United States has pursued negotiations with Bangladesh on a Status of Forces Agreement, an Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement and a General Security of Military Information Agreement.[304][305][306] In 2019, Bangladesh ratified the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[307]

Foreign relations

Bangladesh is considered a

countries dependent on the Bay of Bengal
.

international criticism against Myanmar for military operations against the Rohingya, and have demanded their right of return to Arakan.[319][320]

Bangladesh shares an important

warm relationship with China, which is its largest trading partner, and the largest arms supplier.[328] Japan is Bangladesh's largest economic aid provider, and the two maintain a strategic and economic partnership.[329] Political relations with Middle Eastern countries are robust.[330] Bangladesh receives 59% of its remittances from the Middle East,[331] despite poor working conditions affecting over four million Bangladeshi workers.[332] Bangladesh plays a major role in global climate diplomacy as a leader of the Climate Vulnerable Forum.[333]

Civil society

Since the colonial period, Bangladesh has had a prominent

Centre for Law and Mediation, Odhikar, the Alliance for Bangladesh Worker Safety, the Bangladesh Environmental Lawyers Association, the Bangladesh Hindu Buddhist Christian Unity Council and the War Crimes Fact Finding Committee. The world's largest international NGO BRAC is based in Bangladesh. There have been concerns regarding the shrinking space for independent civil society in recent years.[335][336][337]

Human rights

Armed men in black uniforms on a street
The Rapid Action Battalion has been sanctioned by the United States for human rights abuses.

Digital Security Act was repealed and replaced by the Cyber Security Act in 2023.[342] The repeal was welcomed by the International Press Institute.[343]

On

Democracy Index.[348] Bangladesh was ranked 96th among 163 countries in the 2022 Global Peace Index.[349] According to National Human Rights Commission, 70% of alleged human-rights violations are committed by law-enforcement agencies.[350]

LGBT rights are frowned upon among social conservatives.[351] Homosexuality is affected by Section 377 of the Penal Code of Bangladesh, which was originally enacted by the British colonial government.[352][353] An underground LGBT scene is flourishing across the country. However, Bangladesh only recognises the local transgender community known as the Hijra, which is the most widely accepted LGBT group among poorer sections of society.[354][355] Organized crime by the Hijra is growing, with blackmailing and extortion rackets operating on Grindr and resulting in theft, murder and kidnapping.[356][357] According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 1,531,300 people are enslaved in Bangladesh, or roughly 1% of the population.[358][359][360][361]

Corruption

Like many developing countries,

2006–08 Bangladeshi political crisis, indicting many leading politicians, bureaucrats and businessmen for graft.[367][368][369]

Economy

Office blocks on Kemal Ataturk Avenue in Dhaka

Bangladesh is the second largest economy in South Asia after India.

UNDP, "Asia and the Pacific has observed the fastest Human Development Index (HDI) progress in the world—with Bangladesh being one of the best performers, moving from an HDI of 0.397 in 1990, the fourth lowest in the region, to a HDI of 0.661 in 2021. Only China had greater improvements in the region over this period".[371]

Chittagong has the busiest port on the Bay of Bengal.

In 2022, Bangladesh had the second largest

labor force of roughly 70 million,[380] which is the world's seventh-largest; with an unemployment rate of 5.2% as of 2021.[381] The government is setting up 100 special economic zones to attract foreign direct investment (FDI) and generate 10 million jobs.[382] The Bangladesh Investment Development Authority (BIDA) and the Bangladesh Economic Zones Authority (BEZA) have been established to help investors in setting up factories; and to complement the longstanding Bangladesh Export Processing Zone Authority
(BEPZA).

The Bangladeshi taka is the national currency. The service sector accounts for about 51.3% of total GDP and employs 39% of the workforce. The industrial sector accounts for 35.1% of GDP and employs 20.4% of the workforce. The agriculture sector makes up 13.6% of the economy but is the biggest employment sector, with 40.6% of the workforce.[372] In agriculture, the country is a major producer of rice, fish, tea, fruits, vegetables, flowers,[383] and jute. Lobsters and shrimps are some of Bangladesh's well-known exports.[384]

Private sector

The private sector accounts for 80% of GDP compared to the dwindling role of state-owned companies.

garments industry.[18] Other major industries include shipbuilding, pharmaceuticals, steel, ceramics, electronics, and leather goods.[388] Muhammad Aziz Khan became the first person from Bangladesh to be listed as a billionaire by Forbes.[389]

Infrastructure

The Padma Bridge is a road-rail bridge which spans the Bangladeshi branch of the Ganges that is known as the Padma River. It is the longest bridge on the Ganges. When it was opened in June 2022, the bridge was expected to boost GDP by 1.23%.[390]

Since 2009, Bangladesh has embarked on a series of

Karnaphuli Tunnel, an underwater expressway in Chittagong; Dhaka Elevated Expressway; Chittagong Elevated Expressway; and the Bangladesh Delta Plan
, designed to mitigate the impact of climate change.

Tourism

The

the Paharpur Buddhist Ruins and the Sundarbans) and five tentative-list sites.[395] Activities for tourists include angling, water skiing, river cruising, hiking, rowing, yachting, and beachgoing.[396][397] The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) reported in 2019 that the travel and tourism industry in Bangladesh directly generated 1,180,500 jobs in 2018 or 1.9% of the country's total employment.[398] According to the same report, Bangladesh experiences around 125,000 international tourist arrivals per year.[398] Domestic spending generated 97.7 percent of direct travel and tourism gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012.[399]

Energy

Kutubdia Island

Bangladesh is gradually transitioning to a green economy. It has the largest off-grid solar power programme in the world, benefiting 20 million people.[400] An electric car called the Palki is being developed for production in the country.[401] Biogas is being used to produce organic fertilizer.[402]

Bangladesh continues to have huge untapped reserves of

Russia-Ukraine War.[408]

While

gigawatts by 2041. U.S. companies like Chevron and General Electric supply around 55% of Bangladesh's domestic natural gas production and are among the largest investors in power projects. 80% of Bangladesh's installed gas-fired power generation capacity comes from turbines manufactured in the United States.[410]

The government stopped buying

spot price market in 2022, down from 40% in 2021. Bangladesh continues to trade in LNG on the futures exchange markets.[411]

The Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant, Bangladesh's first operational nuclear plant, is nearing completion as of the end of 2023.[412]

Demographics

Population (millions)
YearPop.±% p.a.
1971 67,800,000—    
1980 80,600,000+1.94%
1990 105,300,001+2.71%
2000 129,600,000+2.10%
2010148,700,000+1.38%
2012161,100,200+4.09%
2022165,160,000+0.25%
Source: OECD/World Bank[413][16]

According to the

median age of roughly 28 years, with 26% of the total population aged 14 or younger,[418] and merely 5% aged 65 and above.[419]

Bangladesh is an

stranded Pakistanis were given citizenship by the Supreme Court in 2008.[421] Bangladesh also hosts over 700,000 Rohingya refugees since 2017, giving it one of the largest refugee populations in the world.[318]

Urban centres

Bangladesh's capital Dhaka and the largest city and is overseen by two city corporations that manage between them the northern and southern parts of the city. There are 12

Gazipur and Narayanganj
. Mayors are elected for five-year terms. Altogether there are 506 urban centres in Bangladesh which 43 cities have a population of more than 100,000.

 
 
Largest cities or towns in Bangladesh
Rank
Name
Pop.
Dhaka
Dhaka
Chittagong
Chittagong
1 Dhaka 10,278,882 Gazipur
Gazipur
Narayanganj
Narayanganj
2 Chittagong 3,227,246
3 Gazipur 2,674,697
4 Narayanganj 967,724
5 Khulna 718,735
6 Rangpur 708,384
7 Mymensingh 576,722
8 Rajshahi 552,791
9 Sylhet 532,426
10
Cumilla
439,414

Language

The official and predominant language of Bangladesh is Bengali, which is spoken by more than 98% of the population as their native language.[422] Bengali is described as a dialect continuum where there are various dialects spoken throughout the country. There is a diglossia in which much of the population can understand or speak Standard Colloquial Bengali, and their regional dialects.[423] These include Chittagonian or Sylheti, though some linguists consider them as separate languages.[422]

English plays an important role in Bangladesh's judicial and educational affairs, due to the country's history as part of the British Empire. It is widely spoken and commonly understood, and is taught as a compulsory subject in all schools, colleges and universities, while the English-medium educational system is widely attended.[424]

Tribal languages, although increasingly endangered, include the Chakma language, another native Eastern Indo-Aryan language, spoken by the Chakma people. Others are Garo, Meitei, Kokborok and Rakhine. Among the Austroasiatic languages, the most spoken is the Santali language, native to the Santal people.[425]

The stranded Pakistanis and some sections of the Old Dhakaites often use Urdu as their native tongue. Still, the usage of the latter remains highly reproached.[426]

Religion

Baitul Mukarram in Dhaka
.

Bangladesh was constitutionally proclaimed as the first secular state of South Asia in 1972. It grants freedom of religion, ensures separation of church and state, and claims to be "secular in practise" while establishing Islam as the state religion.[427][428][429][430] The constitution bans religion-based politics and discrimination, and proclaims equal recognition of people adhering to all faiths.[431] Islam is the largest religion across the country, being followed by about 91.1% of the population.[16][432][433] The vast majority of Bangladeshi citizens are Bengali Muslims, adhering to Sunni Islam. The country is the third-most populous Muslim-majority state in the world and has the fourth-largest overall Muslim population.[434]

Bengali Buddhists. Christianity is the fourth-largest religion at 0.3%, followed mainly by a small Bengali Christian minority. 0.1% of the population practices other religions like Animism or is irreligious.[16][435]

Education

Literacy rates in Bangladesh districts

The constitution states that all children shall receive free and compulsory education.

literacy rate of 74.7% per cent as of 2019: 77.4% for males and 71.9% for females.[437][438] The country's educational system is three-tiered and heavily subsidised, with the government operating many schools at the primary, secondary and higher secondary levels and subsidising many private schools. In the tertiary education sector, the Bangladeshi government funds over 45 state universities[439] through the University Grants Commission (UGC), created by Presidential Order 10 in 1973.[440]

The education system is divided into five levels: primary (first to fifth grade), junior secondary (sixth to eighth grade), secondary (ninth and tenth grade), higher secondary (11th and 12th grade), and tertiary which is university level.[441] According to Hossain 2016, the formal schooling of secondary education in Bangladesh is seven years. The first three years are called junior secondary and include grades six to eight. The next two years are called secondary and include grades nine and ten. The final two years are called higher secondary and include grade eleven and twelve. Based on the information from Hossain 2016 and Daily Star 2010, to pass the fifth grade the Bangladesh Education Ministry requires a public exam called Primary School Certificate (PSC). During the eighth grade students have to pass the Junior School Certificate (JSC) exam to get enrolled in ninth grade, while tenth-grade students have to pass the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) exam to proceed to eleventh grade. Lastly, students have to pass the Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC) exam at grade twelve to apply for university.[442][443]

Bangladesh National University has the largest enrolment, and the University of Dhaka (established in 1921) is the oldest. Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) is a premiere university for engineering education. University of Chittagong, established in 1966, has the largest campus.[445] Dhaka College, established in 1841, is the oldest educational institution for higher education in Bangladesh.[446] Medical education is provided by 29 government and private medical colleges. All medical colleges are affiliated with the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
.

Bangladesh was ranked 105th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[447]

Health

Historical development of life expectancy in Bangladesh, displaying significant strides since independence[448]

Bangladesh, by the constitution, guarantees healthcare services as a fundamental right to all of its citizens.

Medical Education And Family Welfare Division.[451] However, healthcare facilities in Bangladesh are considered less than adequate, although they have improved as the economy has grown and poverty levels have decreased significantly.[450] Bangladesh faces a severe health workforce crisis, as formally trained providers make up a small percentage of the total health workforce.[452] Significant deficiencies in the treatment practices of village doctors persist, with widespread harmful and inappropriate drug prescribing.[453]

Bangladesh's poor healthcare system suffers from severe underfunding from the government.[450] As of 2019, some 2.48% of total GDP was attributed to healthcare,[454] and domestic general government spending on healthcare was 18.63% of the total budget,[455] while out-of-pocket expenditures made up the vast majority of the total budget, totalling 72.68%.[456] Domestic private health expenditure was about 75% of the total healthcare expenditure.[457] As of 2020, there are only 5.3 doctors per 10,000 people, and about six physicians[458] and three nurses per 10,000 people, while the number of hospital beds is 8 per 10,000.[459][460] The overall life expectancy in Bangladesh at birth was 73 years (71 years for males and 75 years for females) as of 2020,[461] and it has a comparably high infant mortality rate (24 per 1,000 live births) and child mortality rate (29 per 1,000 live births).[462][463] Maternal mortality remains high, clocking at 173 per 100,000 live births.[464] Bangladesh is a key source market for medical tourism for various countries, mainly India,[465] due to its citizens dissatisfaction and distrust over their own healthcare system.[466]

The main causes of death are

anaemia, 41% are stunted, 16% are wasted, and 36% are underweight. A quarter of women are underweight and around 15% have short stature, while over half also suffer from anaemia.[468]

Culture

Visual arts and crafts

Embroidery on Nakshi kantha (embroidered quilt), a centuries-old Bengali art tradition

The recorded history of art in Bangladesh can be traced to the 3rd century BCE, when

Mughal Bengal's most celebrated artistic tradition was the weaving of Jamdani motifs on fine muslin, which is now classified by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage. Jamdani motifs were similar to Iranian textile art (buta motifs) and Western textile art (paisley). The Jamdani weavers in Dhaka received imperial patronage.[469] Ivory and brass were also widely used in Mughal art. Pottery
is thoroughly used in Bengali culture.

The

Art Institute Dhaka has been a significant centre for visual art in the region. Its annual Bengali New Year parade
was enlisted as an intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO in 2016.

Modern Bangladesh has produced many of South Asia's leading painters, including SM Sultan, Mohammad Kibria, Shahabuddin Ahmed, Kanak Chanpa Chakma, Kafil Ahmed, Saifuddin Ahmed, Qayyum Chowdhury, Rashid Choudhury, Quamrul Hassan, Rafiqun Nabi and Syed Jahangir, among others. Novera Ahmed and Nitun Kundu were the country's pioneers of modernist sculpture.

In recent times, photography as a medium of art has become popular. Biennial

Chobi Mela is considered the largest photography festival in Asia.[470]

Literature

Syed Mujtaba Ali

Bengali literature is a millennium-old tradition; the Charyapadas are the earliest examples of Bengali poetry. Sufi spiritualism inspired many Bengali Muslim writers. During the Bengal Sultanate, medieval Bengali writers were influenced by Arabic and Persian works. Sultans of Bengal patronized Bengali literature. Examples include the writings of Maladhar Basu, Bipradas Pipilai, Vijay Gupta, and Yasoraj Khan. The Chandidas are notable lyric poets from the early Medieval Age. Syed Alaol was the bard of Middle Bengali literature. The Bengal Renaissance shaped modern Bengali literature, including novels, short stories, and science fiction. Rabindranath Tagore was the first non-European laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature and is described as the Bengali Shakespeare.[471] Kazi Nazrul Islam was a revolutionary poet who espoused political rebellion against colonialism and fascism. Begum Rokeya is regarded as the pioneer feminist writer of Bangladesh.[472] Other renaissance icons included Michael Madhusudan Dutt and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay. The writer

.

The annual

, are among the enormous literary festivals in South Asia.

Women

Although as of 2015[update], several women occupied a key political office in Bangladesh, its women continue to live under a patriarchal social regime where violence is common.[474] Whereas in India and Pakistan, women participate less in the workforce as their education increases, the reverse is the case in Bangladesh.[474]

Bengal has a long history of

feminist activism dating back to the 19th century. Begum Rokeya and Faizunnessa Chowdhurani played an important role in emancipating Bengali Muslim women from purdah, before the country's division, as well as promoting girls' education. Several women were elected to the Bengal Legislative Assembly in the British Raj. The first women's magazine, Begum
, was published in 1948.

In 2008, Bangladeshi female workforce participation stood at 26%.

blue collar jobs in the Bangladeshi garment industry. Agriculture, social services, healthcare, and education are chosen occupations for Bangladeshi women, while their employment in white collar
positions has steadily increased.

Architecture

Mosque in the 15th century Bengal style

The architectural traditions of Bangladesh have a 2,500-year-old heritage.[476] Terracotta architecture is a distinct feature of Bengal. Pre-Islamic Bengali architecture reached its pinnacle in the Pala Empire when the Pala School of Sculptural Art established grand structures such as the Somapura Mahavihara. Islamic architecture began developing under the Bengal Sultanate, when local terracotta styles influenced medieval mosque construction.

The

Dighapatia Palace, Puthia Rajbari and Natore Rajbari
.

Bengali

thatched roofed houses made of natural materials like mud, straw, wood, and bamboo. In modern times, village bungalows are increasingly made of tin.[citation needed
]

brutalism and the use of lakes to represent Bengali geography, are regarded as one of the masterpieces of the 20th century. In recent times, award-winning architects like Rafiq Azam have set the course of contemporary architecture by adopting influences from the works of Islam and Kahn.[citation needed
]

Performing arts

Lalon Shah's shrine in Kushtia

Theatre in Bangladesh includes various forms with a history dating back to the 4th century CE.[478] It includes narrative forms, song and dance forms, supra-personae forms, performances with scroll paintings, puppet theatre and processional forms.[478] The Jatra is the most popular form of Bengali folk theatre. The dance traditions of Bangladesh include indigenous tribal and Bengali dance forms, as well as

classical Indian dances, including the Kathak, Odissi and Manipuri dances
.

The

Nazrul Sangeet. Bangladesh has a rich tradition of Indian classical music, which uses instruments like the sitar, tabla, sarod, and santoor.[481] Sabina Yasmin and Runa Laila were considered the leading playback singers in the 1990s, while musicians such as Ayub Bachchu and James are credited with popularising rock music in Bangladesh.[482][483]

Textiles

A ramp walk by a model during a fashion show in Bangladesh in 2012

The

neckties
are customarily worn by the country's men in offices, in schools, and at social events.

The handloom industry supplies 60–65% of the country's clothing demand.

fashion industry has flourished. The retailer Aarong is one of South Asia's most successful ethnic wear brands. The development of the Bangladesh textile industry, which supplies leading international brands, has promoted the local production and retail of modern Western attire. The country now has several expanding local brands like Westecs and Yellow. Bangladesh is the world's second-largest garment exporter. Among Bangladesh's fashion designers, Bibi Russell has received international acclaim for her "Fashion for Development" shows.[486]

Cuisine

Traditional Bangladeshi meals: shorshe ilish, Dhakaiya biryani and pitha

Bangladeshi cuisine, formed by its geographic location and climate, is rich and diverse; sharing its culinary heritage with the neighbouring Indian state of

mustard seeds, mustard oil, ghee, achars[488] and chutneys are also widely used in the cuisine.[487]
: 13–14 

Fish is the main source of protein, owing to the country's

beef hatkora.[491] Among the tribal communities in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, cooking with bamboo shoots is popular.[492] Khulna is renowned for using chui jhal (piper chaba) in its meat-based dishes.[491][488]

Bangladesh has a vast spread of desserts, including distinctive

Festivals

Pahela Baishakh, the Bengali new year, is the major festival of Bengali culture and sees widespread festivities. Of the major holidays celebrated in Bangladesh, only Pahela Baishakh comes without any pre-existing expectations (specific religious identity, a culture of gift-giving, etc.) and has become an occasion for celebrating the simpler, rural roots of Bengal. Other cultural festivals include Nabonno and Poush Parbon, Bengali harvest festivals.[502]

A fair in Comilla

The Muslim festivals of Eid al-Fitr,

Gautama Buddha, and the Christian festival of Christmas are national holidays in Bangladesh and see the most widespread celebrations in the country. The two Eids are celebrated with a long streak of public holidays and allow celebrating the festivals with their families outside the city.[502]

Alongside national days like the remembrance of 21 February 1952

Victory Day. On Language Movement Day, people congregate at the Shaheed Minar in Dhaka to remember the national heroes of the Bengali Language Movement. Similar gatherings are observed at the National Martyrs' Memorial on Independence Day and Victory Day to remember the national heroes of the Bangladesh Liberation War.[504]

Sports

Bangladesh cricket team

In rural Bangladesh, several

Lathi Khela and Nouka Baich remain fairly popular. While Kabaddi is the national sport,[505] Cricket is the most popular sport in the country. The national cricket team participated in their first Cricket World Cup in 1999 and the following year was granted Test cricket status. Bangladesh reached the quarter-final of the 2015 Cricket World Cup, the semi-final of the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy and they reached the final of the Asia Cup 3 times – in 2012, 2016, and 2018. Shakib Al Hasan is widely regarded as one of the greatest All-rounders in the history of Cricket and as one of the greatest Bangladeshi sportsman ever.[506][507][508][509][510][511] On 9 February 2020, the Bangladesh youth national cricket team won the men's Under-19 Cricket World Cup, held in South Africa. This was Bangladesh's first World Cup victory.[512][513] In 2018, the Bangladesh women's national cricket team won the 2018 Women's Twenty20 Asia Cup defeating India women's national cricket team in the final.[514]

Bangladesh football team

Football is also a leading sport in Bangladesh.

Shadhin Bangla Team, which played friendly matches throughout India to raise international awareness about the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971.[516] On 26 July 1971, the team's captain, Zakaria Pintoo, became the first person to hoist the Bangladesh flag on foreign land before their match in Nadia district of West Bengal.[517] Following independence, the national football team participated in the AFC Asian Cup (1980), becoming only the second South Asian team to do so.[518] Bangladesh's most notable achievements in football include the 2003 SAFF Gold Cup and 1999 South Asian Games. In 2022, the Bangladesh women's national football team won the 2022 SAFF Women's Championship.[519][520]

Bangladesh archers Ety Khatun and Roman Sana won several gold medals winning all the 10 archery events (both individual and team events) in the 2019 South Asian Games.[521] The National Sports Council regulates 42 sporting federations.[522] Chess is very popular in Bangladesh. Bangladesh has five grandmasters in chess. Among them, Niaz Murshed was the first grandmaster in South Asia.[523] In 2010, mountain climber Musa Ibrahim became the first Bangladeshi climber to conquer Mount Everest.[524] Wasfia Nazreen is the first Bangladeshi climber to climb the Seven Summits.[525]

Bangladesh hosts several international tournaments.

ICC Cricket World Cup 2011 with India and Sri Lanka in 2011. Bangladesh solely hosted the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 championship. Bangladesh hosted the Cricket Asia Cup in 2000, 2012, 2014 and 2016. Bangladesh has also hosted the 1985 Men's Hockey Asia Cup.[526]

Media and cinema

The Bangladeshi press is diverse and privately owned. Over 200 newspapers are published in the country.

Freedom of the media remains a major concern due to government attempts at censorship and the harassment of journalists.[citation needed
]

The

]

Museums and libraries

The Varendra Research Museum in Rajshahi, maintained by Rajashi University.[532]

Established in 1910, the Varendra Research Museum is the oldest museum in Bangladesh.[532][533] It houses important collections from both the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, including the sculptures of the Pala-Sena School of Art and the Indus Valley civilisation, and Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian manuscripts and inscriptions.[534][535]

The Ahsan Manzil, the former residence of the Nawab of Dhaka, is a national museum housing collections from the British Raj.[535][536]

The

Ethnological Museum of Chittagong showcases the lifestyle of various tribes in Bangladesh. The Bangladesh National Museum is located in Shahbagh, Dhaka, and has a rich collection of antiquities. The Liberation War Museum documents the Bangladeshi struggle for independence and the 1971 genocide.[citation needed
]

The Hussain Shahi dynasty established royal libraries during the Bengal Sultanate. Libraries were established in each district of Bengal by the Zamindar gentry during the Bengal Renaissance in the 19th century. The trend of establishing libraries continued until the beginning of World War II. In 1854, four major public libraries were opened, including the Bogra Woodburn Library, the Rangpur Public Library, the Jessore Institute Public Library, and the Barisal Public Library.

The

mobile libraries across Bangladesh and was awarded the UNESCO Jon, Amos Comenius Medal.[citation needed
]

See also

Notes

  1. romanized: Bāṅlādeś, pronounced [ˈbaŋlaˌdeʃ]
  2. romanizedGôṇoprojātôntrī Bāṅlādeś, pronounced [ɡɔnopɾodʒat̪ɔnt̪ɾi‿baŋlad̪eʃ]

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