Hispanics in the American Civil War
Hispanics in the American Civil War fought on both the Union and Confederate sides of the conflict. Not all the Hispanics who fought in the
The Union Army was the land force that fought for the Union during the American Civil War. It was also known as the "Federal Army", the "U.S. Army", the "Northern Army" and the "National Army".
The "New Mexico Volunteer Infantry", with 157 Hispanics officers, was the Union unit with the most officers of that ethnic background. Besides Colonel Miguel E. Pino and Lieutenant Colonel Jose Maria Valdez who belonged to the 2nd New Mexico Volunteer Infantry, the New Mexico Volunteer Infantry also included Colonel Diego Archuleta (eventually promoted to Brig. Gen.), the commanding officer of the First New Mexico Volunteer Infantry, Colonel Jose G. Gallegos commander of the Third New Mexico Volunteer Infantry, and Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Perea, who commanded Perea's Militia Battalion.[3]
Another unit which was composed of Hispanics was D Company "The Spanish Company" of the Garibaldi Guard,
The Confederate Congress provided for a Confederate States Army patterned after the United States Army. It was to consist of a large provisional force to exist only in time of war and a small permanent regular army. The provisional, volunteer army was established by an act of the Confederate Congress passed February 28, 1861, one week before the act which established the permanent regular army organization, passed March 6, 1861. Although the two forces were to exist concurrently, little was done to organize the Confederate regular army.[5]
Amongst the Confederate units that either were composed entirely of Hispanics or had a significant number of Hispanics were the 5th Regiment (Spanish Regiment) of the "European Brigade", "Cazadores Espanoles Regiment" and the "Louisiana Tigers", all from Louisiana; the "Spanish Guards" and the "55th Infantry" both from Alabama and "
Hispanics held various grades of ranks in the military, the highest being full
Notable military personnel
The following is an uncompleted list of notable Hispanics who participated in the American Civil War. Their names are placed in accordance to the highest rank that they held during their military service.
Union forces
- Admiral full admiral on July 25, 1866, after the war, thereby becoming the first person to be named full admiral in the Navy's history.[12]
- Brigadier General Indian Agent by President Abraham Lincoln.[13]
- Brevet Brigadier General [note 1] Henry Clay Pleasants (1833–1880) – was born and raised in Buenos Aires, Argentina, to an American father and a Spanish mother. Pleasants, who at the time was a Lieutenant Colonel, devised a plan to break the Confederate stranglehold on the city of Petersburg, Virginia. He organized the building of a tunnel filled with explosives under the Confederate lines outside the city. His actions led to the Battle of the Crater on July 30, 1864. It was supposed to give the Union troops an opportunity to break the defense of Petersburg. The poorly executed "Battle of the Crater" failed and his troops continued to fight for eight more months. Pleasants, however, was promoted to Brevet Brigadier General.[6]
- Colonel Carlos Alvarez de la Mesa (1828–1872) – Alvarez de la Mesa, a resident of Worcester, Mass., was a Terry de la Mesa Allen, Sr. commanding general of the First Infantry Division in North Africa and Sicily, and later the commander of the 104th Infantry Division during World War II.[14]
- Colonel José Guadalupe Gallegos (1828–1867) – Gallegos was the Post Commander at Hatch Ranch on Nov 22, 1861. His unit was under special order 187, Nov 9, 1861 to construct a road between Las Vegas and Fort Union. Gallegos served as commander of the Third New Mexico Volunteer Infantry in the Army of the United States from August 26, 1861, until March 6, 1862. This was just prior to the Battle of Glorieta Pass, fought from March 26 to 28, 1862, the decisive battle of the New Mexico Campaign.[17]
- Colonel Miguel E. Pino – Prior to the Civil War, Pino was the Commanding Officer of an expedition which was organized in Navajos. During the Civil War, Pino commanded the 2nd Regiment of New Mexico Volunteers, which fought at the Battle of Valverde from February 20 to February 21, 1862, and the Battle of Glorieta Pass from March 26 to March 28, 1862. Pino and his men played an instrumental role in the defeat Confederate Army, derailing any plans of an invasion of New Mexico.[18]
- Colonel Federico Fernández Cavada (1831–1871) – Cuban-born Cavada commanded the 114th Pennsylvania Volunteer infantry regiment when it took the field in the Peach Orchard at Gettysburg. Because of his artistic talents, he was assigned to the Hot Air Balloon unit of the Union Army. From the air he sketched what he observed of the enemy movements. On April 19, 1862, Federico sketched enemy positions from Thaddeus Lowe's Constitution balloon during the Peninsula Campaign in Virginia. Cavada was captured during the Battle of Gettysburg and sent to Libby Prison in Richmond, Virginia. Cavada was released in 1864 and later published a book entitled "LIBBY LIFE: Experiences of A Prisoner of War in Richmond, VA, 1863–64", which told about the cruel treatment which he received in the Confederate prison[19][20]
- Lieutenant Colonel José Francisco Chaves (1833–1904) – Chaves had been an officer in the Mexican Army before he joined the Union Army. He entered the Union Army as major of the 1st New Mexico Infantry Regiment. Chaves fought in the Battle of Valverde in the American Civil War alongside Colonel Kit Carson. Chaves later became the first Secretary of Education for New Mexico.[21]
- Lieutenant Colonel William S. Rosecrans. In this capacity he participated in the operations of the Army of the Cumberland at the Battle of Stones River. Riding with General Rosecrans toward the Round Forest, Garesché was decapitated by a cannonball.[22]
- Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Perea (1830–1913) – In December 1861, Perea organized and commanded Perea's Militia Battalion for the defense of New Mexico. Perea was later elected as a Republican to the Thirty-eighth Congress. He served in said position for two years (March 4, 1863 – March 3, 1865).[23]
- Lieutenant Colonel Jose Maria Valdez (1841–1884) – Valdez commanded the 3rd New Mexico volunteers at Valverde. Both he and Colonel Pino were cited by Union General Canby in his official report for their efforts in this action.[3]
- Major Fort Fauntleroy in northwestern New Mexico. On March 28, 1862, Chaves led 490 New Mexico volunteers on a daring raid. As the main Union troops fought the Confederates, Chaves's men lowered themselves down a 200-foot slope, taking a small Texan guard completely by surprise and capturing the Confederates' supply train. They destroyed the wagons and burned all the supplies.[20]
- Major Salvador Vallejo (1813–1876) – Vallejo organized First Battalion of Native Cavalry one of the California units which served with the Union Army in the West. Companies of Vallejo's unit saw action in the Bald Hills War, and against the Mason Henry Gang in Central California, and late in the war the whole unit was sent east to Arizona Territory, to defend it from the raids of the Apache. Like most California units they never engaged the Confederates and therefore Vallejo did not have a battlefield role in the Civil War, but did hold the West for the Union.[24][25]
- Captain Román Antonio Baca – Baca was an officer in the New Mexico Volunteers a Union force. In 1862, he became the first Hispanic spy for the United States.[24]
- Captain
- Captain Adolfo Fernández Cavada (1832–1871) – Cavada served in the 114th Pennsylvania Volunteers at Gettysburg with his brother, Colonel Federico Fernandez Cavada. He served with distinction in the Army of the Potomac from Fredericksburg to Gettysburg and was a "special aide-de-camp" to General Andrew A. Humphreys.[19][27]
- Captain Luis F. Emilio (1844–1918) – The son of a Spanish immigrant, Emilio was among the group of original officers of the 54th selected by Massachusetts War Governor John Albion Andrew. Captain Emilio emerged from the ferocious assault on Fort Wagner on July 18, 1863, as the regiment's acting commander, since all of the other ranking officers had been killed or wounded. He fought with the 54th for over three years of dangerous combat.[28]
- Captain Antonio Maria de la Guerra (1825–1881) – Mayor of Santa Barbara, California, several times a member of the Santa Barbara County Board of Supervisors, California State Senator and Captain of California Volunteers in the American Civil War.[29]
- Lieutenant Puerto Rican native who served as an officer in the 15th Connecticut Volunteer Infantry, of the Union Army. Rodríguez served in the defenses of Washington, D.C., and led his men in the Battles of Fredericksburg and Wyse Fork.[30]
- Third Assistant Engineer turd engineer"), lube oil, bilge, and oily water separation systems. Depending on usage.[31] and his position sometimes required that he assist the third mate in maintaining proper operation of the lifeboats. On July 1, 1901, he was transferred to the retired list of the Navy with the rank of rear admiral.[32]
Confederate forces
- Colonel Ambrosio José Gonzales (1818–1893) – Gonzales, a native Cuban, settled in South Carolina. He was volunteering during the bombardment of Fort Sumter and became an inspector of coastal defences. In 1862, he was assigned as Chief of Artillery to the Department of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. In 1864, he served as artillery commander at the Battle of Honey Hill during Sherman's March to the Sea.[33] President Jefferson Davis declined promotion requests for the rank of Brigadier General six times. It is believed that Gonzales's early experience with (unsuccessful) Cuban filibusters, and his contentious relationships with Confederate officers in Richmond, were not helpful to him; moreover Davis's dislike for P. G. T. Beauregard, who was a schoolmate of Gonzales's and the proponent of several of the requests, compounded his difficulties.[34]
- Colonel Leonidas M. Martin (1824–1904) – Martin organized and was a major in the 10th Texas Cavalry. Promoted to Colonel was placed in charge of the 5th Texas Partisan Rangers under the command of Colonel Thomas C. Bass. Martin participated in the Battle of Honey Springs, the largest battle fought in Indian Territory, fought on July 17, 1863. The Union Forces were victorious and a result of the Confederate defeat in this battle was that the Confederates were always short on supplies in the Indian Territory forcing the Texas Cavalry to abandon the territory.[35]
- Colonel San Agustín Plaza. Colonel Santos Benavides commanded forty-two men and repelled three Union attacks at the Zacate Creek in what is known as the Battle of Laredo.[19][36]
- Lieutenant Colonel Paul Francis de Gournay (1828–1904) – De Gournay was a Cuban who fought for independence from Spain and afterwards settled in Louisiana. In 1861, he equipped an artillery battery at his own expense and led it during the Peninsula Campaign in Virginia. Later, he became the commander of the 12th Battalion, Louisiana Heavy Artillery. He served during the Siege of Port Hudson, and with its surrender became a prisoner for the rest of the war.[34]
- Major David Camden DeLeón (1816–1872) – DeLeón a.k.a. "The Fighting Doctor", came from a Sephardic Jewish family. He was the first Hispanic to graduate from an Ivy League School (University of Pennsylvania – 1836). In 1864, he became the first Surgeon General of the Confederate States. The President of the Confederate States Jefferson Davis, assigned him the task of organizing the medical department of the Confederate Army.[24]
- Captain Michael Philip Usina (1840–1903) – was a member of the Confederate States Navy. He was born in St. Augustine, Florida, to Spanish parents. As captain of several blockade runners, Usina managed to avoid capture on his many successful missions. Usina fought in Co. B in the 8th Georgia Infantry of the Confederate Army before being transferred to the Navy. He was wounded and captured in the Battle of Manassas, but managed to escape and reach the Southern lines.[6][37]
Hispanic women in the Civil War
Many women participated in the American Civil War. Two of the most notable Hispanic women to participate in that conflict were Lola Sánchez and Loreta Janeta Velazquez. The similarities between them were that both were Cuban born and both served for the Confederacy. However, the difference between them was that one served as a spy while the other disguised herself as a male and fought in various battles.
- John Jackson Dickison. Because of the information which she provided, the Confederate soldiers were able to surprise the Union troops, in what became known as the "Battle of Horse Landing",[20] and capture the USS Columbine, a Union warship in the only known incident in U.S. history where a cavalry unit captured and sank an enemy gunboat.[38]
- Loreta Janeta Velazquez a.k.a. "Lieutenant Harry Buford" (1842–1897) – Velazquez was a Cuban woman who masqueraded as a male Confederate soldier during the Civil War. She enlisted in the Confederate Army in 1861, without her soldier-husband's knowledge. She fought at Bull Run, Ball's Bluff and Fort Donelson, but her gender was discovered while in New Orleans and she was discharged. Undeterred, she reenlisted and fought at Shiloh, until unmasked once more. She then became a spy, working in both male and female guises.[19]
Medal of Honor
The Medal of Honor is the highest
-
Medal of Honor
(Army version) -
Medal of Honor
(Navy version)
- Corporal 19th Virginia Infantry regiment, with the staff of his own colors and seized the opposing regiment's flag, handing the prize over to General Alexander S. Webb. General Webb is quoted as saying:
At the instant a man broke through my lines and thrust a rebel battle flag into my hands. He never said a word and darted back. It was Corporal Joseph H. De Castro, one of my color bearers. He had knocked down a color bearer in the enemy's line with the staff of the Massachusetts State colors, seized the falling flag and dashed it to me.[40]
- Seaman Philip Bazaar – Bazaar was a resident of Massachusetts, who joined the Union Navy at New Bedford. He was assigned to the USS Santiago de Cuba, a wooden, brigantine-rigged, side-wheel steamship under the command of Rear Admiral David D. Porter. In the latter part of 1864, Union General Ulysses S. Grant ordered an assault on Fort Fisher, a Confederate stronghold. which protected the vital trading routes of Wilmington's port, at North Carolina.[41] On January 12, 1865, both ground and naval Union forces attempted a second land assault, after the failure of the first. During the land assault, Bazaar and 5 other crew members carried dispatches from Rear Admiral Porter to Major General Alfred Terry, while under heavy fire from the Confederates to Major General Alfred Terry. Bazaar was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions.[42][43]
- Seaman John Ortega (1840-????) – Ortega was a resident of Pennsylvania who joined the Union Navy in his adopted hometown in Pennsylvania. Ortega was assigned to the USS Saratoga during the Civil War. The USS Saratoga was ordered to proceed to Charleston, South Carolina, for duty in the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron. Ortega was a member of the landing parties from the ship who made several raids in August and September in 1864, which resulted in the capture of many prisoners and the taking or destruction of substantial quantities of ordnance, ammunition, and supplies. A number of buildings, bridges, and salt works were destroyed during the expedition. For his actions Seaman John Ortega was awarded the Medal of Honor and promoted to acting master's mate. He was the first Hispanic member of the U.S. Navy to receive the Medal of Honor.[44][45]
Hispanic Union units
The 1st California Cavalry Battalion
The 1st Battalion, Native California Cavalry, was raised in California in 1863 to 1864 and served on the border in Arizona and New Mexico. All officers and non-commissioned officers had to be fluent in Spanish, and the language of command was Spanish. The Native California Cavalry were one of the last U.S. military mounted regiments equipped with lances.
The Garibaldi Guard, D Company "The Spanish Company"
The
The following is a list of the names of some of the Hispanics officers of the 4th D Company "The Spanish Company" of the Garibaldi Guard: Captain Joseph Torrens, 1st Lt. Jose Romero, 2nd Lt. (later Colonel) Carlos Alvarez de la Mesa and 1st Sgt. Francisco Luque.[4]
New Mexico Volunteer Infantry Regiment
Mustered in August 1861, the New Mexico Volunteer Infantry Regiment was the Union Unit with the most officers of Hispanic background. On February 21, 1862, these units fought against Confederate Brigadier General Henry H. Sibley and his troops in the Battle of Valverde in February and the Battle of Glorieta Pass. In January 1864, Colonel Kit Carson led a detachment of nearly 400 in the Battle of Canyon de Chelly. Later that year Carson led a detachment at the first Battle of Adobe Walls. Among the last engagements of the war in which the units participated was the Battle of Aro Pass, fought on July 5, 1865.[3] The regiment was mustered out on September 30, 1866.[46]
Hispanic Confederate units
European Brigades and the Louisiana Tigers
The 5th Regiment of the "European Brigade" was a home guard brigade of New Orleans, Louisiana, made up of 800 Hispanics who were descendants of immigrants from the Canary Islands. The brigade, under the command of Brigadier General William E. Starke, was assigned to defend the city. Louisiana also had a unit called the "Cazadores Espanoles Regiment" (Spanish Hunters Regiment)[47] and the "Louisiana Tigers", commanded by Major Chatham Roberdeau Wheat, which had men from Spain, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Mexico, and other Latin American countries. The units fought at the Battles of Antietam and Gettysburg.[6]
The following is a list of the names of some of the Hispanics officers of the 5th Regiment of the "European Brigade": Capt. Domingo Fatjo, Capt. Magin Puig, Capt. Jose Quintana, Capt. A. Pons Valencia, 1st Lt. Jose Albarez, 1st Lt. J. Barba, 1st Lt. John Fernandez, 1st Lt. S. J. Font, 1st Lt. Eduardo Villa, 1st Lt. Antonio Robira, 1st Lt. Antonio Helizo, 2nd Lt. Dormian Campo, 2nd Lt. Lorenzo Carbo, 2nd Lt. J. B. Cassanova, 2nd Lt. Eduardo Deu, 2nd Lt. Juan Fernandez, 2nd Lt. A. Fornaris, 2nd Lt. Valentin Hamsen, 2nd Lt. Juan Parra, 2nd Lt. Antonio Mercadal, 2nd Lt. R. Martinez, 3rd Lt.[note 2] Antonio Barrera, 3rd Lt. Edward Bermudez, 3rd Lt. Jose Bernal, 3rd Lt. Candelario Caceres, 3rd Lt. C. Garcia, 3rd Lt. Bernardo Heres, 3rd Lt. Bernardo Rodriguez, 3rd Lt. Jose Salor and 3rd Lt. F. Suarez.[48]
Among the Hispanic officers of the "Cazadores Espanoles Regiment" are the following: Lt. Col. J. M. Anquera, Capt. Jose Anguera, Capt. S. G. Fabio, 2nd Lt. Ceferino Monasteria, 1st Lt. Vicente Planellas, 1st Lt. L. Roca and Surgeon Francisco Ribot.[48]
The Spanish Guards
The home guard brigade of Mobile, Alabama, made of Hispanics, was called "The Spanish Guards". The guard served as part of the Mobile County Reserves. Even though it was disbanded on April 12, 1865, many of its men joined the other Confederate forces and surrendered with General Richard Taylor, at Citronelle, Alabama, on May 4, 1865. Various brigades which had a significant number of Hispanic soldiers and which fought at the Battles of Antietam and Gettysburg were Alabama's 55th Infantry and Florida's 2nd Infantry.[6]
The following Hispanic officers served with the Alabama forces: Maj. F. A. Moreno, 1st Lt. Andrew J. Pou, 2nd Lt. Jerome Eslava and 2nd Lt,. M. Franciscoa. Lt. Col. William Baya and 2nd Lt. Francis Baya served with the Florida Infantry.[6]
Confederate units of Texas
Besides serving in the "Benavides Regiment", many Hispanics who were from Texas served in other units of the Confederate Army. Known as Tejanos, they fought in the
Post-war
After the war, the Confederate Army ceased to exist and many of the volunteer units of the Union were mustered out. Most of the former soldiers went home and returned to the civilian activities that they had prior to the war. Others continued in the military and joined the regular Army and Navy.
Among the notable Hispanics who served in the war and who continued in the military was Admiral David Farragut. Farragut was promoted to
Both brothers, Colonel Federico and Captain Adolfo Fernández Cavada were named U.S. consuls in Cuba. Federico was appointed United States consul at
Federico was captured by the Spanish gunboat "Neptuno" in 1871 and taken to Puerto Principe. There he was tried the Spanish authorities and sentenced to die by firing squad. Federico was executed in July 1871.[51] On December 18, 1871, Adolfo Fernández Cavada was killed in battle at the coffee estate "La Adelaida" near Santiago de Cuba.[51]
Captain Stephen Vincent Benet was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General on June 23, 1874, and named Chief of Ordnance. He authored various military related books.[26]
Among the veterans who entered politics were Brigadier General Diego Archuleta, who was named Indian Agent by President Abraham Lincoln and later served in the Mexico Legislature.[13] Lieutenant Colonel José Francisco Cháves, who became the first Secretary of Education for New Mexico[21] and Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Perea who was elected as a Republican to the Thirty-eighth Congress. Perea served in said position for two years (March 4, 1863 – March 3, 1865).[23]
One of those who resumed their life as a civilian was Colonel José Guadalupe Gallegos. Prior to the war Gallegos served in the New Mexico Territorial Legislature between 1855 and 1861. He was one of the founding members of the Historical Society of New Mexico and a founding associate in the incorporation of the New Mexican Railway Company[52] and the New Mexico Wool Manufacturing Company. However, little is known of what he did after the war with the exception that five years later he drowned in a mysterious accident involving his horse-drawn carriage.[17]
Captain Luis F. Emilio[28] went into the real estate business, first in San Francisco, and later in New York. Lieutenant Augusto Rodríguez became a firefighter in New Haven, proprietor of a cigar store, a bartender and saloon keeper.
Medal of Honor recipient Corporal Joseph H. De Castro was employed by the NY Barge Office when on May 8, 1892, he died in his home at 244 West 22nd Street.[53]
The former Confederate Colonel Santos Benavides resumed his merchant and ranching activities. He also remained active in politics.[36]
Colonel Ambrosio José Gonzales pursued a variety of vocations, all of which were marginally successful but, like many others, he never provided the security he sought for his extended family. His efforts were similar to those of other formerly wealthy Southerners who sought to recover their estates and social status.[54] Gonzales faced not only financial loss but also sorrows over the death of his wife and his sister-in-law's successful efforts to poison the relationships between Gonzales and his children.[34]
Major David Camden DeLeón moved to Mexico after the war. He returned to the United States at the request of President Ulysses S. Grant and settled in New Mexico, where he practiced medicine and wrote for medical journals.[24]
After the war, Confederate spy Loreta Janeta Velazquez a.k.a. "Lieutenant Harry Buford" wrote a Civil War memoir, about her exploits titled: "The Woman in Battle: A Narrative of the Exploits, Adventures, and Travels of Madame Loreta Janeta Velazquez, Otherwise Known as Lieutenant Harry T. Buford, Confederate States Army". She traveled in Europe as well as in the Southern United States promoting her book and ideals.[55]
See also
Notes
References
- ^ Hispanic Population of the United States Current Population Survey Definition and Background Archived 1999-02-19 at the Wayback Machine, United States Census Bureau, Population Division, Ethnic & Hispanic Statistics Branch, Retrieved May 21, 2008
- ^ See, for example, usage in Grant, Preface p. 3.
- ^ a b c MILITARY ORDER OF THE LOYAL LEGION OF THE UNITED STATES
- ^ a b c 39th New York State Volunteers; "Garibaldi Guard"; 4th D Company; "The Spanish Company"
- ^ Eicher, pp. 70, 66.
- ^ a b c d e f g Hispanics and the Civil War - National Park Service
- ^ Pottsville history
- ^ Hispanics Military
- ^ Hispanic Memorial
- ^ ""Famous Navy Quotes: Who Said Them... and When", Naval Historical Center, January 2008, Retrieved March 18, 2009
- ^ Shippen, Edward (1883). Naval Battles, Ancient and Modern. J.C. McCurdy & Co. p. 638.
- ^ "David Farragut". NNDB. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ ISBN 0-7876-0519-0.
- ^ a b Arlington National Cemetery Archived 2017-05-24 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Garibaldi Guard of the 39th New York State Volunteers
- ^ "War letters tell poignant tale". 8 October 2011.
- ^ a b New Mexican Printing Company (1885). "Local and Special Laws of New Mexico: in Accordance with an Act of the Legislature, Approved April 3, 1884". Chpt.26. State of New Mexico, 1885. pp. 804–808. Retrieved 14 December 2011.
- ^ "Hispanics in America's Defense"; Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Military Manpower and Personnel Policy
- ^ ISBN 0-7614-2939-5
- ^ ISBN 0-8359-0641-8
- ^ a b Notable Hispanics of New Mexico Archived 2014-10-09 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia article
- ^ a b Civil War Archives
- ^ a b c d Crocchiola, The Civil War in New Mexico, Secretary of Defense, "Hispanics in Americas Defense", p. 16
- ^ Vallejo family
- ^ a b Arlington National Cemetery
- ^ Cavada Brothers Archived 2014-04-13 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ ISBN 978-0-306-80623-0. Reprint (with a new introduction) of the second enlarged edition, originally published in 1894, Boston. First edition published 1891.
- ^ Californians and the Military' Captain Antonio Maria de la Guerra
- ISBN 1-59213-413-0
- ^ Bureau of Labor Statistics (U.S.) (2007). "Water Transportation Occupations" (PDF). Occupational Outlook Handbook. Government Printing Office. Retrieved 2008-10-14.
- ^ Army-Navy-Air Force Register and Defense Times. 1911-01-01.
- ^ OPERATIONS ON THE COASTS OF SOUTH CAROLINA, GEORGIA, AND MIDDLE AND EAST FLORIDA.
- ^ ISBN 1-57003-496-6.
- ^ Battle of Honey Springs
- ^ a b Webb County Heritage Foundation; War on the Rio Grande Archived 2008-09-08 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Blockade-Runner
- ^ "Horse Landing Project". The Florida Confederation for the Preservation of Historic Sites website. Daytona Beach, FL: The Florida Confederation for the Preservation of Historic Sites, Inc. Archived from the original on 2011-07-28.
- ISBN 9780811700757. Retrieved 2010-04-15.
- ^ The Magazine of American History, page 18.
- ^ "USS Santiago de Cuba (1861)", Department of the Navy – Naval Historical Center, July 2002, Retrieved May 21, 2008
- ^ "Medal of Honor citation for Philip Bazaar"; publisher Home of Heroes.com, Retrieved May 21, 2008
- ^ Medal of Honor citation for Philip Bazaar
- ^ Civil War Medal of Honor Citations (Last names starting with "O" through "R"), American Civil War.com; sources: U.S. Army Archives, Retrieved May 21, 2008
- ^ Medal of Honor citation
- ^ History - New Mexico Troops
- ^ Cazadores Espanoles Regiment
- ^ a b Hispanic Confederate Heritage
- ^ Texas State Historical Society
- ^ a b Shippen, Edward (1883). "Naval Battles, Ancient and Modern". J.C. McCurdy & co.. pp. 638.
- ^ a b Fernando Fernández-Cavada Collection, 1846-1976 | University of Miami Cuban Heritage Collection
- ^ Hovey (Public Printer, Santa Fe), O.P (1860). "Laws passed by the General Assembly of the Territory of New Mexico". New Mexico Territorial Laws [9th Assembly] 1859-'60. State of New Mexico, 1860 Reprinted 1930. Retrieved 14 December 2011. p.110
- ^ "New York Times"; May 10, 1892; Obituary; page 5
- ^ "Ambrosio José Gonzales, a Cuban Patriot in Carolina"; by: Lewis Pinckney Jones; Wofford College
- ^ Madame Loreta Janeta Velazquez: Heroine or Hoaxer