History of Natchez, Mississippi
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The city of Natchez, Mississippi, was founded in 1716 as Fort Rosalie, and renamed for the Natchez people in 1763.
Pre-European settlement (to 1716)
According to archaeological excavations, the area has been continuously inhabited by various cultures of indigenous peoples since the 8th century A.D.[1] The original site of Natchez was developed as a major village with ceremonial platform mounds, built by people of the prehistoric Plaquemine culture, part of the influential Mississippian culture and active in this area from about 700 AD. Archaeological evidence shows they began construction of the three main earthwork mounds by 1200. Additional work was done in the mid-15th century.[1]
By the late 17th and early 18th century, the
Many early European explorers, including
The most thorough account was written by French colonists Antoine-Simon Le Page du Pratz, who lived near the Natchez for several years, learning their language and befriending leaders. He witnessed the 1725 funeral of the war chief, Tattooed Serpent (Serpent Piqué in French.) The Natchez maintained a hierarchical society, divided into nobles and commoners, with people affiliated according to matrilineal descent. The paramount chief, known as the "Great Sun", owed his position to the rank of his mother. His next eldest brother served as Tattooed Serpent.
The 128-acre (0.52 km2) site of the
Colonial history (1716–1783)
In 1716 the French founded Fort Rosalie, to protect the trading post which had been established two years earlier in the Natchez territory. Permanent French settlements and plantations were subsequently developed a dangerous distance from the fort and too near important native locales.[3] The French inhabitants of the "Natchez colony" often came into conflict with the Natchez people over land use and resources. This was one of several Natchez settlements; others lay to the northeast. The Natchez tended to become increasingly split into pro-French and pro-English factions; those who were more distant had more relations with English traders, who came to the area from British colonies to the east.
After several smaller wars, the Natchez (together with the
Many of the Natchez who escaped enslavement sought refuge with the
Following the Seven Years' War, in 1763 Fort Rosalie and the surrounding town, renamed for the defeated tribe, came under British rule. The British Crown bestowed land grants in this territory to officers who had served with distinction in the war. These officers came mostly from the colonies of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. They established plantations and brought their upper class style of living to the area. Before 1774, Lord Dartmouth who was Secretary of State for the Colonies and the previous First Lord of Trade, contemplated siting a civil government below Natchez at White Cliffs which would be the residence of a Lieutenant Governor reporting to Pensacola.[6] Montfort Browne visited Natchez in 1769 while he was Lieutenant Governor of West Florida; he received a grant near Natchez.[7][8] Bernard Romans' map Proposals dated August 5, 1773 from Philadelphia[9] to likely subscribers indicated a purpose was to map the Mississippi River from Natchez to the mouth.[10] During the 1760s and 1770s, the merchants of Natchez handled the Indian trade for other merchants such as McGillivrary & Struthers of Mobile and others.[11] On February 16, 1779, British authorities in London received several petitions from West Florida proprietors, merchants and settlers to grant local courts at Natchez, encourage commerce and make land grant reforms.[12]
The Spanish commander, Juan de la Villebreuvre, on September 7, 1779 conquered Fort Bute, and later the garrison at Baton Rouge and Natchez's Fort Panmure to establish Spanish colonial rule, but a Natchez loyalist militia forced him to surrender Fort Panmure in May 1781.[13] A few days later Pensacola was lost by the British and the Natchez revolt collapsed. After defeat in the American Revolutionary War, Great Britain ceded the territory to the United States under the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1783). Spain was not a party to the treaty, and it was their forces who had taken Natchez from British troops. Although Spain had been allied with the American colonists, they were more interested in advancing their power at the expense of Britain. Once the war was over, they were not inclined to give up that which they had acquired by force.
In 1797 Major Andrew Ellicott of the United States of America marched to the highest ridge in the young town of Natchez, set up camp, and raised the first American Flag claiming Natchez and all former Spanish lands east of the Mississippi above the 31st parallel for the United States.
A census of the Natchez District taken in 1784 counted 1,619 people, including 498 black slaves.
Antebellum (1783–1860)
By royal order the Roman Catholic church purchased 300 arpents square near the fort from Richard Carpenter on April 11, 1788.[14]
On October 27, 1795, the U.S. and Spanish signed the Treaty of San Lorenzo, settling their decade-long boundary dispute. All Spanish claims to Natchez were formally surrendered to the United States. More than two years passed before official orders reached the Spanish garrison there. In early 1797, the Treasury Department sent $2,200 worth of supplies to Natchez through New Orleans merchant, Robert Cochran.[15] Spanish authorities exercised strict regulations for commerce and the development of the streets, lots, and bluff,[16] but surrendered the fort and possession of the Town of Natchez to United States forces led by Captain Isaac Guion on March 30, 1798.
A week later, Natchez became the first capital of the new Mississippi Territory, created by the Adams administration. On March 10, 1803 the territorial assembly incorporated the town.[17] After it served for several years as the territorial capital, the territory built a new capital, named Washington, 6 miles (10 km) to the east, also in Adams County. After roughly 15 years, the legislature transferred the capital back to Natchez at the end of 1817, when the territory was admitted as a state. Later the capital was returned to Washington. As the state's population center shifted to the north and east with more settlers entering the area, the legislature voted to move the capital to the more centrally located city of Jackson in 1822. In 1830 the population of Natchez was 2,789.[18] Samuel Cotton, the Natchez harbor master reported collection from 383 steamships, 10 keelboats, and 868 flatboats for the year 1829.[19] Like other river towns, Natchez, was a destination for gamblers.[20]
Throughout the course of the early nineteenth century, Natchez was the center of economic activity for the young state. Its strategic location on the high bluffs on the eastern bank of the Mississippi River enabled it to develop into a bustling port. At Natchez, many local plantation owners had their cotton loaded onto steamboats at the landing known as Natchez Under-the-Hill[21] to be transported downriver to New Orleans or, sometimes, upriver to St. Louis or Cincinnati. The cotton was sold and shipped to New England, New York, and European spinning and textile mills.
The
The growth of the cotton industry attracted many new white settlers to Mississippi, who competed with the Choctaw for their land. Despite land cessions, the settlers continued to encroach on Choctaw territory, leading to conflict. With the election of President Andrew Jackson in 1828, he pressed for Indian removal, gaining Congressional passage of an act authorizing that in 1830. Starting with the Choctaw, the government began removal of Southeastern Indians in 1831 to lands west of the Mississippi River in Indian Territory. Nearly 15,000 Choctaw left their traditional homeland over the next two years.
The terrain around Natchez on the Mississippi side of the river is hilly. The city sits on a high bluff above the Mississippi River; to reach the riverbank, one must travel down a steep road to the landing called Silver Street, which is in marked contrast to the flat "delta" lowland found across the river surrounding the city of
The
Prior to 1845 and the founding of the
Natchez also has a very unique history as being a region with a substantial number of free persons of color during the era of slavery.[25] Census records from 1850 and 1860 show that about 85% of the free people of color in the antebellum era were mulattoes; the offspring of white male planter fathers and enslaved or emancipates black females to whom the former freed.[26] Mixed raced free people of color in Natchez acquired wealth in several ways. Very often their planter white male fathers gave them inheritances or their half family members set them up in business.[27] Some of the leading free people of color within the Natchez community include such figures as William Johnson, Robert W. Fitzhugh, William McCary and Louis Winston.[28] Robert H. Wood, was another prominent free person of color. He became the mayor of Natchez which was the exact same position his white planter father Robert Wood occupied years earlier.[29] It was initially believed in post modern times that free people of color lacked a lot of citizen rights regardless of their status.[30] Research in recent decades through courthouse and governmental records has substantially demonstrated that to be untrue for the wealthy property owning free people of color.[31] Owning wealth and being included as equals by the richest of the white families in the antebellum era gave the few people of color who had this circumstance a rare amount of prestige and power. William Johnson, a well known free person of color strives to be recognized as a planter by Natchez society;[32] Archie P Williams a free person of color who was also of Natchez MS was recognized in society as a planter[33][34][35] due to being the son of David Percy Williams[36] of Natchez and inheriting a large portion of his wealth. Archie P Williams white side of his family lineage had been established as one of the wealthiest in the region for several generations prior beginning in the 1760s with his great grandfather David Williams. Archie P Williams was one of a few millionaires (especially mixed -race or black millionaires) in the 1800s due to his inherited share of the multi million dollar estate of Winthrop Sargent who was a stepfather to his grandfather[37] Other free persons of color in Natchez acquired skills as artisans, mechanics, shoemakers, etc and they lived a merely comfortable existence in contrast to the enslaved African Americans.[31][38][39][40] Some of the descendants of free persons of color from the antebellum era continue to proper in the Natchez, Mississippi region. The descendants of Robert Wood own the Mackel Funeral Home.[41] Anton R. Williams of Kalamazoo and Grand Rapids, Michigan inherited wealth as a descendant of Archie P. Williams and continues to operate various oil and gas, real estate and timber land business ownership interest in Natchez, Mississippi and the surrounding region from his headquarters of Grand Rapids, Michigan and Kalamazoo, Michigan.[42]
American Civil War (1861–1865)
During the Civil War, Natchez remained largely undamaged. The city surrendered to
Some Natchez residents remained defiant of the Federal authorities. In 1864, William Henry Elder, the Catholic bishop of the Diocese of Natchez, refused to obey a Federal order to compel his parishioners to pray for the President of the United States. U.S. officials arrested Elder, jailed him briefly, and banished him across the river to Confederate-held Vidalia. Elder was eventually allowed to return to Natchez and resume his clerical duties there. He served until 1880, when he was elevated to Archbishop of Cincinnati.
Ellen Shields's memoir reveals a Southern woman's reactions to Yankee military occupation of the city. Shields' memoir portrays the upheaval of Southern society during the war. Because Southern men were absent at war, many elite women had to exercise their class-based femininity and sexual appeal to deal with the Yankees.[45]
In 1860, there were planters in the Natchez region that were not all of these were enthusiastic Confederates. The exceptions tended to be fairly recent arrivals to the
Following the Union victory at the
During the war period Natchez was nicknamed "Tradyville" by both sides as it was known for its contraband trade.[49]
Postwar period (1865–1900)
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Natchez made a rapid economic comeback in the postwar years, with the resumption of much of the commercial shipping traffic on the Mississippi River. The cash crop was still cotton, but gang agricultural slave labor came to be largely replaced by sharecropping, in which freedmen felt they had some independence. In many families, women left field labor to care for their own people. During hard times, they might work for their family and later had to take up domestic service.
In addition to cotton, the development of local industries such as
The city's prominent place in Mississippi River commerce during the nineteenth century was reflected by the naming of nine steamboats Natchez, which traveled the lower river between 1823 and 1918. Many were built for and commanded by the famous Captain Thomas P. Leathers, whom Jefferson Davis had wanted to head the Confederate defense fleet on the Mississippi River. (This appointment never was concluded.) In 1885, the Anchor Line, known for its luxury steamboats operating between St. Louis and New Orleans, launched its "brag boat", the City of Natchez. This ship operated for a year before being lost to a fire at Cairo, Illinois, on 28 December 1886. Since 1975, an excursion steamboat at New Orleans has borne the name Natchez.
Such river commerce sustained the city's economic growth until just after the turn of the twentieth century, when steamboat traffic began to be replaced by the
After the war and during
In 1871, Natchez opened its first co-educational public school (K-12) for African American students, the Union School.[52]
Since 1900
For a short time, the women's school Stanton College in Natchez educated daughters of the
Located on the Mississippi River, the town long had an active nightlife, featuring jazz and blues created and played by Black American musicians. On April 23, 1940, 209 people died in a fire at the Rhythm Night Club, a black dance hall in Natchez.[54] The local paper remarked that "203 black bought 50 cent tickets to eternity."[55] This fire has been noted as the fourth-deadliest fire in U.S. history.[56] Several blues songs pay tribute to this tragedy and mention the city of Natchez.[57]
Industrial companies were located in Natchez in the 1960s, bringing jobs that were important to the city. Among them was Armstrong Tire and Rubber company. Such companies tended to repeat the pattern of segregation, keeping African Americans confined to lower-level jobs. The
Civil Rights Era
In the early 1960s, as the
Despite the violence, Forrest A. Johnson, Sr., a well-respected white attorney in Natchez, began to speak out and write against the Klan. From 1964 through 1965, he published an alternative newspaper called the Miss-Lou Observer, in which he weekly took on the Klan. Klansmen and their supporters conducted an economic boycott against his law practice, nearly ruining him financially.[59]
In his October 1964 report, A.E. Hopkins, an investigator for the Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission, a tax-supported organization that sponsored surveillance of residents, wrote that the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) was in Adams County in force
because of the alleged burning of several churches in that area as well as several bombings and the whipping of several Negroes; also, because of the murder of two Negroes from Meadville whose bodies were recovered from the Mississippi river while the murders of three civil rights workers from Philadelphia was being investigated by Federal, State and local officials.[59][60]
By that time, more than 100 FBI agents were in the area as part of the Philadelphia investigation; three civil rights workers had disappeared and that summer were found murdered and buried in an earthen dam.
The FBI was also trying to keep racial violence under control. Bill Williams, an FBI agent in Natchez for two years during that time, said in a 2005 interview that the "race wars in the area are 'a story never told.' He said that Natchez in 1964 had become the 'focal point for racial, anti-civil rights activity for the state for the next several years'."[59] In May 1966 a Klan rally was held at Liberty Ball Park featuring speakers such as Imperial Wizard, Robert M. Shelton, as well as leaders from out of state groups.[61]
Murders of four other African-American men in this area in 1964 are attributed to Klan members.[62] Other Klan murders of activists followed in succeeding years, despite or in resistance to Congressional passage of civil rights legislation.
As Klan violence rose in the 1960s, African Americans organized an armed paramilitary group called the Deacons for Defense and Justice, borrowing from a Louisiana group. James Jackson, a Natchez barber, publicly announced the group's formation the day after George Metcalf was seriously injured in a car bombing on August 27, 1965.[63] The Deacons began to accompany NAACP officers and protesters and carried weapons openly under Mississippi law.
George Metcalf and Wharlest Jackson Sr. both worked for the Armstrong Tire and Rubber Plant, where they tried to open more positions to African Americans. They were both active in the Natchez chapter of the NAACP: Metcalf as president and Jackson as treasurer. On February 27, 1967, Jackson was killed when a car bomb went off in his truck as he drove home from work. He had recently received a raise and promotion to a position previously "reserved" for whites. A Korean War veteran, he was married with five children. His murder was never solved, and no one has been charged in the crime.[64]
In August 1967, Metcalf submitted a petition in favor of school integration to the school board. (The Supreme Court had ruled segregated public schools as unconstitutional in 1954.) He asked the board not to publish the names of signatories to the petition, but they released the list. Little more than a week later, Metcalf was seriously injured in a car bombing. It was never solved.[65]
In response to these attacks, the Natchez
In 1966, the House Un-American Activities Committee published the names of Natchez residents who were current or former members of the Klan, including more than 70 employees at the International Paper plant in the city, as well as members of the Natchez police and the Adams County Sheriff's departments.[55] HUAC found that at least four white supremacist terrorist groups were operating in Natchez during the 1960s, including the Mississippi White Caps. The MWC distributed flyers anonymously around the city, threatening "crooks and mongrelizers." The Americans for the Preservation of the White Race was founded in May 1963 by nine residents of Natchez.[55]
The Cottonmouth Moccasin Gang was founded by Claude Fuller and Natchez Klansmen Ernest Avants and James Lloyd Jones. In June 1966, they murdered Natchez resident
Prosecution of civil rights cold cases
James Ford Seale, one of two men arrested in November 1964 as a suspect in the kidnapping and murders of Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Henry Moore, was released when the state district attorney decided evidence was insufficient. Interest in the case was revived after 2000, when FBI files from 1964 were recovered by journalists. The FBI re-opened the investigation. Seale was arrested and charged by the US Attorney. He was tried and convicted in federal court in 2007. He died in federal prison in 2011 at the age of 76.
The FBI discovered that 67-year-old Ben Chester White, murdered in June 1966, had been killed on federal land near Pretty Creek in the Homochitto National Forest of Natchez. As a result, they could establish federal jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute this case. In 1999, the case was reopened.[67] Authorities indicted Ernest Avants in 2000 for the murder. He was convicted in 2003 and sentenced to life in prison; he died the following year at the age of seventy-two.[68]
In February 2011, The Injustice Files of the Investigation Discovery channel aired three TV episodes of cold case murders related to the civil rights era. The first episode was devoted to the murder of Wharlest Jackson Sr., killed in 1967, as noted above. This was part of a collaboration with the FBI, which had started an initiative in 2007 to investigate and prosecute civil rights cases.[69]
Natural disasters
On May 7, 1840, an
In August 2005, in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, Natchez served as a refuge for coastal Mississippi and Louisiana residents, providing shelters, hotel rooms, rentals, Federal Emergency Management Agency disbursements and animal shelters. Natchez was able to keep fuel supplies open for the duration of the disaster, provide essential power to the most affected areas, receive food deliveries, and maintain law and order while assisting visitors from other areas. Many churches, including Parkway Baptist Church, were used as emergency shelters.[70] In the months after the hurricane, a majority of the available homes were purchased or rented, with some tenants making Natchez their permanent home.
Flooding in 2011 drove the Mississippi River to crest at 61.9 feet (18.9 m) on May 19, the highest recorded height of the river since the 1930s.
Images and memory
This section needs additional citations for verification. (August 2011) |
Prominent families in Natchez have used the Natchez Pilgrimage, an annual tour of the antebellum mansions, to portray a nostalgic vision of its antebellum slaveholding society.
By the winter of 1988, the
The historic district has been used by Hollywood as the backdrop for feature films set in the antebellum period.
In 2007, a
A
A Museum of African American History and Culture has been opened in Natchez.
References
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- ^ "Louisiana Prehistory: Plaquemine Mississippian". Archived from the original on 2013-05-18. Retrieved 2011-10-24.
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- ^ Ginny Walker English, "Natchez Massacre 1729", State Coordinator, Mississippi American Local History Network, 2000–2001, accessed 3 May 2009
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- ^ Morales, John Ventura. “Spanish Documents Relating to the Founding of the Church at Natchez, Miss.” The American Catholic Historical Researches, vol. 4, no. 2, 1887, pp. 149–51. JSTOR Retrieved 26 Oct. 2022.
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- ^ Joseph Dunbar Shields. (1930) Natchez: its early history. edited by Elizabeth Dunbar Murray. Louisville, Kentucky: John P. Morton and Company, Inc. p. 44.
- ^ Sheilds, (1930). p.44.
- ^ Population of the 100 Largest Cities and Other Urban Places in the United States: 1790 to 1990, U.S. Census Bureau, 1998
- ^ Official records. State of Mississippi. (1795-1999). "Natchez Municipal Records: Harbor Master". Natchez (Miss.)., Series 2051: Original Municipal Records. Mississippi Department of Archives and History. Microfilm reel 36,722.
- ^ Peterson, Virgil W. “Gambling. Should It Be Legalized?” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (1931-1951), vol. 40, no. 3, 1949, pp. 261 ff. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1138545. Retrieved 5 Feb. 2024.
- ^ Natchez Under-the-Hill at Friends of Our Riverfront, retrieved 24 May 2017.
- ^ Peter Tonge, "Natchez: in 1850 half of the millionaires in the US lived here", The Christian Science Monitor, MARCH 22, 1983.
- ^ Jim Barnett and H. Clark Burkett, "The Forks of the Road Slave Market at Natchez," Journal of Mississippi History, Sept 2001, Vol. 63 Issue 3, pp 168–187
- ^ Julia Huston Nguyen, "The Value of Learning: Education and Class in Antebellum Natchez," Journal of Mississippi History, Sept 1999, Vol. 61 Issue 3, pp 237–263,
- ^ "A Contested Presence: Free Black People in Antebellum Mississippi, 1820–1860 - 2000-05".
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- ^ Davis, Ronald L. F. "Black Experience in Natchez".
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- ^ "A Contested Presence: Free Black People in Antebellum Mississippi, 1820–1860 - 2000-05".
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- ^ http://www.ancestraltrackers.net/ms/adams/memento-old-new-natchez.pdf [bare URL PDF]
- ^ "Archie P. Williams - Natchez bi-racial Board Supervisor (Govt Executive) and Planter in 1880s". The Weekly Democrat. 24 October 1888. p. 4.
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- ^ Supreme Court, Louisiana; Thorpe, Thomas H.; Gill, Charles G. (1848). "Louisiana Reports: Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of Louisiana".
- ^ "Founders Online: To Alexander Hamilton from William Playfair, 30 March 1791".
- ^ "Archie P. Williams - Natchez MS Bi-Racial Millionaire Heir in the 1800s, Planter and Executive". The Weekly Democrat. 24 October 1888. p. 4.
- ^ "Mackel's Funeral Home ( Robert Wood), Natchez Museum of African American Culture and History". 15 September 2021.
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- ^ Joyce L.. Broussard, "Occupied Natchez, Elite Women, and the Feminization of the Civil War," Journal of Mississippi History, Summer 2008, Vol. 70 Issue 2, pp 179–208
- ^ William K. Scarborough, "Not Quite Southern: The Precarious Allegiance of the Natchez Nabobs in the Sectional Crisis," Prologue, Winter 2004, Vol. 36 Issue 4, pp 20–29
- ^ Herschel Gower, Charles Dahlgren of Natchez: The Civil War and Dynastic Decline (2003)
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- ^ Ruminski, Jarrett. “‘Tradyville’: The Contraband Trade and the Problem of Loyalty in Civil War Mississippi.” Journal of the Civil War Era, vol. 2, no. 4, 2012, pp. 511–37. JSTOR website Retrieved 12 June 2023.
- ^ Melody Kubassek, "Ask Us Not to Forget: The Lost Cause in Natchez, Mississippi," Southern Studies, 1992, Vol. 3 Issue 3, pp 155–170
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- ^ Report. Mississippi State Dept of Education. 1890. pp. 330–334.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ Cita Cook, "The Modernized Elitism of Young Southern Ladies at Early Twentieth-Century Stanton College," Journal of Mississippi History, Sept 2000, Vol. 62 Issue 3, pp 199–223
- ^ Michael, Rugel (23 April 2011). "Natchez Burning: Anniversary of The Rhythm Club Fire". Retrieved 25 June 2013.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-375-40461-0.
- ^ "National Fire Protection Association". Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2020-01-15.
- ISBN 978-1-934110-29-4. Retrieved 1 September 2011.
- ^ "Emergence of the UKA". Anti-Defamation League. 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-11-10. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
- ^ a b c Donna Ladd, "Evolution of A Man: Lifting The Hood In South Mississippi", Jackson Free Press, 26 October 2005, accessed 15 October 2011
- ^ Note: Hopkins was referring to the murders of the 19-year-old black men Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Henry Moore of Franklin County, Mississippi.
- ^ "Klan Rally set for Natchez". (4 May 1966) (Jackson) Clarion Ledger. Subject file. Ku Klux Klan 1950-1967. Mississippi Department of Archives and History.
- ^ "Cold Case: After 50 years, DOJ says it’s uncertain who killed Frank Morris; closes case", Concordia Sentinel, 5 February 2014, accessed 11 January 2015
- ^ Dougherty Kevin. Weapons of Mississippi. University Press of Mississippi 2010. pp. 177 f. ISBN 9781604734515.
- ^ Donna Ladd, "Daddy, Get Up: This Son of Natchez Wants Justice, Too", Jackson Free Press, 26 October 2005, accessed 16 October 2011
- ^ Adams County Key People: George Metcalf and Wharlest Jackson, Mississippi Civil Rights Project
- ^ Kevin Cooper, "White was an unlikely Klan target", Natchez Democrat, 5 December 1999, accessed 16 October 2011
- ^ "Ben Chester White" Archived 2011-10-23 at the Wayback Machine, Civil Rights and Restorative Justice Project, Northeastern University, 2011, accessed 16 October 2011
- ^ Felicia R. Lee, "TV Series Tries to Revive Civil Rights Cold Cases", New York Times, 15 February 2011, accessed 16 October 2011
- ^ Crouch, Andy (12 December 2005). "It's Not About Power". Christianity Today. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
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- ^ Jack E Davis, "A Struggle for Public History: Black and White Claims to Natchez's Past," Public Historian, Jan 2000, Vol. 22 Issue 1, pp 45–63
- ^ Mendoza, Brishette (July 3, 2021). "How a Slave Market Became a National Park Service Site". The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 3, 2021. Retrieved July 5, 2021.
- ^ "Names to be added to war plaques", Natchez Democrat, 4 November 2010
- ^ [1], Natchez Democrat, 11 November 2011
- ^ See "Ed Pincus’s Black Natchez (1967)," F.I.L.M. 2010, Hamilton University Film Series
Further reading
- Anderson, Aaron D. Builders of a New South: Merchants, Capital, and the Remaking of Natchez, 1865-1914. (University Press of Mississippi, 2013).
- Boler, Jaime Elizabeth. City under Siege: Resistance and Power in Natchez, Mississippi, 1719–1857, PhD. U. of Southern Mississippi, Dissertation Abstracts International 2006 67(3): 1061-A. DA3209667, 393p.
- Brazy, Martha Jane. An American Planter: Stephen Duncan of Antebellum Natchez and New York, Louisiana State U. Press, 2006. 232 pp.
- Broussard, Joyce L. "Occupied Natchez, Elite Women, and the Feminization of the Civil War," Journal of Mississippi History, 2008 70(2): 179–207.
- Broussard, Joyce L. Stepping Lively in Place: The Not-Married, Free Women of Civil War-Era Natchez, Mississippi. (U of Georgia Press, 2016).
- Cox, James L. The Mississippi Almanac. New York: Computer Search & Research, 2001. ISBN 0-9643545-2-7.
- Davis, Jack E. Race Against Time: Culture and Separation in Natchez Since 1930, (LSU Press, 2001).
- Davis, Ronald L. F. Good and Faithful Labor: from Slavery to Sharecropping in the Natchez District 1860-1890, (Greenwood Press, 1982).
- Dittmer, John. Local People: The Civil Rights Movement in Mississippi. (U of Illinois Press, 1994).
- Dolensky, Suzanne T. "Natchez in 1920: On the Threshold of Modernity." Journal of Mississippi History 73#2 (2011): 95-137 online Archived 2018-12-21 at the Wayback Machine
- Gandy, Thomas H. and Evelyn. The Mississippi Steamboat Era in Historic Photographs: Natchez to New Orleans, 1870–1920. New York: Dover Publications, 1987.
- Gower, Herschel. Charles Dahlgren of Natchez: The Civil War and Dynastic Decline Brassey's, 2002. 293 pp.
- Inglis, G. Douglas. "Searching for Free People of Color in Colonial Natchez," Southern Quarterly 2006 43(2): 97–112
- James, Dorris Clayton. Ante-Bellum Natchez (1968), the standard scholarly study
- Libby, David J. Slavery and Frontier Mississippi, 1720–1835, U. Press of Mississippi, 2004. 163 pp. focus on Natchez
- Nguyen, Julia Huston. "Useful and Ornamental: Female Education in Antebellum Natchez," Journal of Mississippi History 2005 67(4): 291–309
- Nolan, Charles E. St. Mary's of Natchez: The History of a Southern Catholic Congregation, 1716–1988 (2 vol 1992)
- Umoja, Akinyele Omowale. "'We Will Shoot Back': The Natchez Model and Paramilitary Organization in the Mississippi Freedom Movement", Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 32, No. 3 (Jan., 2002), pp. 271–294. In JSTOR
- Way, Frederick. Way's Packet Dictionary, 1848–1994: Passenger Steamboats of the Mississippi River System Since the Advent of Photography in Mid-Continent America. 2nd ed. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1994.
- Wayne, Michael. The Reshaping of Plantation Society: The Natchez District, 1860–1880 (1983).
- "Natchez", Kimball & James' Business Directory for the Mississippi Valley, Cincinnati: Printed by Kendall & Barnard, 1844, pp. 422–429,
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 17 (9th ed.). 1884. p. 242. .
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 265. .
External links
- Items related to Natchez, Mississippi, various dates (via Digital Public Library of America).
- Materials related to Natchez, Mississippi, various dates (via Library of Congress, Prints & Photos Division)
- F.O.R. Natchez!, Friends of Our Riverfront