Natchez, Mississippi
Natchez, Mississippi | ||
---|---|---|
FIPS code 28-50440 | | |
GNIS feature ID | 0691586 | |
Website | City of Natchez |
Natchez (/ˈnætʃɪz/ NATCH-iz), officially the City of Natchez, is the only city in and the county seat of Adams County, Mississippi, United States. The population was 14,520 at the 2020 census.[2] Located on the Mississippi River across from Vidalia in Concordia Parish, Louisiana, Natchez was a prominent city in the antebellum years, a center of cotton planters and Mississippi River trade.
Natchez is approximately 90 miles (140 km) southwest of
History
This section needs additional citations for verification. (May 2020) |
Established by
Beginning 1779, the area was under Spanish colonial rule. After defeat in the American Revolutionary War, Great Britain ceded the territory to the United States under the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1783). Spain was not a party to the treaty, and it was their forces who had taken Natchez from British troops. Although Spain had been allied with the American colonists, they were more interested in advancing their power at the expense of Britain. Once the war was over, they were not inclined to give up that which they had acquired by force.
In 1797 Major Andrew Ellicott of the United States marched to the highest ridge in the young town of Natchez, set up camp, and raised the first American Flag claiming Natchez and all former Spanish lands east of the Mississippi above the 31st parallel for the United States.
After the United States acquired this area from the Spanish, the city served as the capital of the Mississippi Territory and then of the state of Mississippi. It predates Jackson by more than a century; the latter replaced Natchez as the capital in 1822, as it was more centrally located in the developing state. The strategic location of Natchez, on a bluff overlooking the Mississippi River, ensured that it would be a pivotal center of trade, commerce, and the interchange of ethnic Native American, European, and African cultures in the region; it held this position for two centuries after its founding.
In U.S. history, Natchez is recognized particularly for its role in the development of the
In the decades preceding the Civil War, Natchez was by far the most prevalent slave trading city in Mississippi, and second in the United States only to New Orleans.
In 1840, the city was struck by
In the middle of the nineteenth century, the city attracted wealthy Southern planters as residents, who built
During the
After the American Civil War, the city's economy rapidly revived, mostly due to Natchez having been spared the destruction visited upon many other parts of the South. From 1870 to 1871,
The vitality of the city and region was captured most significantly in the 80 years or so following the war by the photographers Henry C. Norman and his son Earl. The output of the Norman Studio between roughly 1870 and 1950 documents this period in Natchez's development vividly; the photographs are now preserved as the Thomas and Joan Gandy Collection in special collections of the library of Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge.
During the twentieth century, the city's economy experienced a downturn, first due to the replacement of steamboat traffic on the Mississippi River by
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 13.9 square miles (36 km2), of which 13.2 square miles (34 km2) are land and 0.6 square miles (1.6 km2) (4.62%) is water.
Climate
Natchez has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) under the Köppen climate classification system.
Climate data for Natchez, Mississippi (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1892–present) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °F (°C) | 83 (28) |
86 (30) |
92 (33) |
92 (33) |
99 (37) |
103 (39) |
105 (41) |
105 (41) |
105 (41) |
98 (37) |
89 (32) |
89 (32) |
105 (41) |
Mean maximum °F (°C) | 75.1 (23.9) |
78.4 (25.8) |
82.2 (27.9) |
85.9 (29.9) |
89.8 (32.1) |
93.0 (33.9) |
95.7 (35.4) |
96.1 (35.6) |
93.4 (34.1) |
88.7 (31.5) |
81.7 (27.6) |
77.3 (25.2) |
96.8 (36.0) |
Mean daily maximum °F (°C) | 56.9 (13.8) |
60.9 (16.1) |
68.0 (20.0) |
75.1 (23.9) |
81.7 (27.6) |
87.3 (30.7) |
89.5 (31.9) |
89.3 (31.8) |
85.5 (29.7) |
76.9 (24.9) |
66.6 (19.2) |
58.9 (14.9) |
74.7 (23.7) |
Daily mean °F (°C) | 46.4 (8.0) |
50.0 (10.0) |
57.3 (14.1) |
63.9 (17.7) |
71.7 (22.1) |
77.9 (25.5) |
80.4 (26.9) |
79.9 (26.6) |
75.1 (23.9) |
65.1 (18.4) |
54.8 (12.7) |
48.4 (9.1) |
64.2 (17.9) |
Mean daily minimum °F (°C) | 35.9 (2.2) |
39.0 (3.9) |
46.5 (8.1) |
52.7 (11.5) |
61.6 (16.4) |
68.5 (20.3) |
71.3 (21.8) |
70.5 (21.4) |
64.7 (18.2) |
53.2 (11.8) |
43.0 (6.1) |
37.9 (3.3) |
53.7 (12.1) |
Mean minimum °F (°C) | 20.3 (−6.5) |
24.4 (−4.2) |
28.6 (−1.9) |
36.6 (2.6) |
47.0 (8.3) |
59.5 (15.3) |
65.3 (18.5) |
63.9 (17.7) |
51.5 (10.8) |
36.8 (2.7) |
27.5 (−2.5) |
23.4 (−4.8) |
18.5 (−7.5) |
Record low °F (°C) | 4 (−16) |
4 (−16) |
18 (−8) |
28 (−2) |
30 (−1) |
49 (9) |
55 (13) |
50 (10) |
40 (4) |
27 (−3) |
18 (−8) |
5 (−15) |
4 (−16) |
Average precipitation inches (mm) | 6.23 (158) |
5.54 (141) |
6.03 (153) |
4.90 (124) |
4.69 (119) |
4.48 (114) |
4.47 (114) |
4.87 (124) |
4.14 (105) |
4.04 (103) |
5.08 (129) |
5.66 (144) |
60.13 (1,527) |
Average snowfall inches (cm) | 0.1 (0.25) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.2 (0.51) |
0.3 (0.76) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in) | 11.2 | 10.4 | 9.9 | 8.3 | 9.2 | 9.9 | 10.6 | 10.2 | 7.2 | 6.7 | 7.8 | 10.3 | 111.7 |
Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in) | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 |
Source: |
Demographics
Census | Pop. | Note | %± |
---|---|---|---|
1810 | 1,511 | — | |
1820 | 2,184 | 44.5% | |
1830 | 2,789 | 27.7% | |
1840 | 3,612 | 29.5% | |
1850 | 4,434 | 22.8% | |
1860 | 6,612 | 49.1% | |
1870 | 9,057 | 37.0% | |
1880 | 7,058 | −22.1% | |
1890 | 10,101 | 43.1% | |
1900 | 12,210 | 20.9% | |
1910 | 11,791 | −3.4% | |
1920 | 12,608 | 6.9% | |
1930 | 13,422 | 6.5% | |
1940 | 15,296 | 14.0% | |
1950 | 22,740 | 48.7% | |
1960 | 23,791 | 4.6% | |
1970 | 19,704 | −17.2% | |
1980 | 22,015 | 11.7% | |
1990 | 19,535 | −11.3% | |
2000 | 18,464 | −5.5% | |
2010 | 15,792 | −14.5% | |
2020 | 14,520 | −8.1% | |
2022 (est.) | 13,812 | [3] | −4.9% |
U.S. Decennial Census[14] 2020 Census[2] |
2020 census
As of the census of 2020, there were 14,520 people, 6,028 households, and 3,149 families residing in the city.
Race and ethnicity
Race | Num. | Perc. |
---|---|---|
Black or African American
|
8,729 | 60.12% |
White
|
5,156 | 35.51% |
Native American
|
16 | 0.11% |
Asian
|
73 | 0.5% |
Pacific Islander
|
2 | 0.01% |
Other/Mixed
|
343 | 2.36% |
Latino
|
201 | 1.38% |
2000 census
As of the census of 2000,[16][17] there were 18,464 people, 7,591 households, and 4,858 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,398.3 inhabitants per square mile (539.9/km2). There were 8,479 housing units at an average density of 642.1 per square mile (247.9/km2).
In 2000, the racial and ethnic makeup of the city was 54.49%
Economy
Education
Natchez is home to Alcorn State University's Natchez Campus, which offers the School of Nursing, the School of Business, and graduate business programs. The School of Business offers Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree and other business classes from its Natchez campus. The MBA program attracts students from a wide range of academic disciplines and preparation from the Southwest Mississippi area and beyond offering concentrations in general business, gaming management and hospitality management.[19] Both schools in the Natchez campus provide skills which has enabled community students to have an important impact on the economic opportunities of people in Southwest Mississippi.[20]
The city of Natchez and Adams County operate one public school system, the Natchez-Adams School District. The district comprises ten schools. They are Susie B. West, Morgantown, Gilmer McLaurin, Joseph F. Frazier, Robert Lewis Magnet School, Natchez Freshman Academy, Natchez Early College@Co-Lin, Central Alternative School, Natchez High School, and Fallin Career and Technology Center.
In Natchez, there are a number of private and parochial schools.
Adams County Christian School (ACCS) is also a PK-12 school in the city. Adams County Christian School was founded as a segregation academy
Media
Newspaper
- The Natchez Democrat
Radio
Television
Natchez is amid the Alexandria, Louisiana and Jackson, Mississippi television markets.
Infrastructure
Transportation
Highways
U.S. 61 runs north–south, parallel to the Mississippi River, linking Natchez with Port Gibson, Woodville, Mississippi and Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
U.S. 84 runs east–west and bridges the Mississippi, connecting it with Vidalia, Louisiana and Brookhaven, Mississippi.
U.S. 425 runs north from Natchez after crossing the Mississippi, connecting Ferriday with Clayton, at which point U.S. 65 follows the west bank of the Mississippi, connecting to Waterproof north to St. Joseph, Newellton, and Tallulah, Louisiana.
U.S. 98 runs east from Natchez towards Bude and McComb, Mississippi.
Mississippi 555 runs north from the center of Natchez to where it joins Mississippi Highway 554.
Mississippi 554 runs from the north side of the city to where it joins Highway 61, northeast of town.
Rail
Natchez is served by the Natchez Railway, which interchanges with
Air
Natchez is served by the
Notable people
- United States senator from Mississippi[22]
- William Wirt Adams, Confederate States Army officer, grew up in Natchez[22]
- Philip Alston, prominent plantation owner and early American outlaw
- Grammy Award-winning songwriter/producer
- Mayor of Buffalo, New York
- Emmy Award-winning journalist, political anchor for CNN; grew up in Natchez and attended both Trinity Episcopal and Cathedral High School
- John J. Chanche, first Roman Catholic bishop of Natchez, buried on the grounds of St. Mary Basilica, Natchez
- George Henry Clinton, member of both houses of the Louisiana State Legislature in the first quarter of the 20th century, born in Natchez in the late 1860s[23]
- Charles C. Cordill, Louisiana state senator from Concordia and Tensas parishes, interred at Natchez City Cemetery[24]
- Charles G. Dahlgren, Confederate brigadier general during American Civil War
- Olu Dara, musician and father of rapper Nas
- Varina Howell Davis, first lady of the Confederate States of America; born, reared, and married in Natchez
- Bob Dearing, longtime member of the Mississippi State Senate
- Ellen Douglas, novelist, author of Black Cloud, White Cloud and Apostles of Light, nominated for the National Book Award
- A. W. Dumas (1876-1945), physician
- Stephen Duncan (1787-1867), planter and banker
- Robert C. Farrell (born 1936), journalist and member of the Los Angeles City Council, 1974–91
- Je'Kel Foster, basketball player
- Jimmie Giles, NFL Tight End & four-time Pro Bowl selection in the 1980s while with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers
- Mickey Gilley, country music singer, born in Natchez
- Heismanrunner-up
- Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield, noted black concert singer and Mississippi Musicians Hall of Fameinductee, was born in Natchez in 1824.
- Cedric Griffin, Minnesota Vikings cornerback born in Natchez but raised in San Antonio, Texas
- Bishop Gunn, rock and roll band whose members were born in Natchez and hold 'The Bishop Gunn Crawfish Boil' in the city every May.
- Malcolm Harvey, former sheriff of Stone Mountain, Georgia and murderer, was born in Natchez
- Abijah Hunt, merchant during the Territorial Period who owned a chain of stores and public cotton gins along the Natchez Trace[25]
- Von Hutchins, former NFL football player for the Indianapolis Colts 2004-2005 Houston Texans 2006-2007Atlanta Falcons 2008
- Greg Iles, raised in Natchez and a best-selling author of many novels set in the city
- Wharlest Jackson, Sr. (1929–1967), civil rights activist
- Rosa Vertner Jeffrey (1828-1894), poet and novelist
- William Johnson, "The Barber of Natchez", freed slave and prominent businessman[26]
- Harriet B. Kells, educator, activist, suffragist, feminist, editor; born in Natchez
- Nook Logan, former Major League Baseball player for the Washington Nationals
- John R. Lynch, the first African-American Speaker of the House in Mississippi and one of the earliest African-American members of Congress
- Samuel Abraham Marx, architect, was born in Natchez
- George Mathews, former governor of Georgia, lived in Natchez in the late 1790s.[27]
- Lynda Lee Mead, Miss Mississippi in 1959 and Miss America in 1960. A Natchez city street, Lynda Lee Drive, is named in her honor.
- Marion Montgomery, jazz singer born in Natchez
- civil rights activist and author of Coming of Age in Mississippi, attended Natchez Junior College
- Elizabeth Dunbar Murray (1877-1966), author, director, impersonator; conducted the Murray School of Expression
- Alexander O'Neal, R&B singer
- John Anthony Quitman, Mexican War hero, plantation owner, governor of Mississippi, owner of Monmouth Plantation
- Clyde V. Ratcliff, member of the Louisiana State Senate from 1944 to 1948, lived in Natchez
- Rico Richardson, NFL player
- Stevan Ridley, NFL running back for the Denver Broncos
- Pierre Adolphe Rost, a member of the Mississippi State Senate and commissioner to Europe for the Confederate States, immigrated to Natchez from France
- Billy Shaw, Pro Football Hall of Fame member, born in Natchez
- Chris Shivers, two-time PBR world champion bull rider, born in Natchez
- Carter Smith, film director and fashion photographer
- Sultan of Morocco
- Hound Dog Taylor, blues singer and slide guitar player
- Fred Toliver, former pitcher for the Philadelphia Phillies and the Minnesota Twins
- Don José Vidal, Spanish governor of the Natchez District, buried in the Natchez City Cemetery[28]
- Joanna Fox Waddill, Civil War nurse known as the "Florence Nightingale of the Confederacy"
- Samuel Washington Weis (1870–1956), painter
- Marie Selika Williams, first black artist to perform at the White House
- Richard Wright, novelist, author of Black Boy and Native Son, born on Rucker plantation in Roxie, twenty-two miles east of Natchez; lived in Natchez as a child
- Robert H. Wood (1844–?), politician, first African American mayor in the United States, former mayor of Natchez[10]
In popular culture
Various movies have been shot here, including The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman (1974), Crossroads (1986), Raintree County (1957), Horse Soldiers (1959),[29] Rascals and Robbers: The Secret Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn (1981),[30] (2019).
In the opening narration of The Apartment (1960), C.C. Baxter mentions the company he works for "has 31,259 employees, which is more than the entire population of Natchez, Mississippi."
Historic sites
Post-classical thru Early modern periods
Antebellum period
- Commercial Bank and Banker's House
- First Presbyterian Church of Natchez
- Great Natchez Tornado
- Natchez Museum of African American History and Culture
- Natchez National Cemetery
- Natchez On-Top-of-the-Hill Historic District
- Selma Plantation
- St. Mary Basilica, Natchez
- United States Courthouse (Natchez, Mississippi)
Pre-Civil War homes
- Airlie (Natchez)
- Arlington (Natchez, Mississippi)
- Auburn (Natchez, Mississippi)
- Brandon Hall (Washington, Mississippi)
- The Briars (Natchez, Mississippi)
- The Burn (Natchez, Mississippi)
- Concord (Natchez, Mississippi)
- Cottage Gardens
- D'Evereux
- Dunleith
- Elgin (Natchez, Mississippi)
- The Elms (Natchez, Mississippi)
- Elms Court
- Glenfield Plantation
- Gloucester (Natchez, Mississippi)
- Hawthorne Place
- Homewood Plantation (Natchez, Mississippi)
- Lansdowne (Natchez, Mississippi)
- Linden (Natchez, Mississippi)
- Longwood (Natchez, Mississippi)
- Magnolia Hill (Natchez, Mississippi)
- Melrose (Natchez, Mississippi)
- Monmouth (Natchez, Mississippi)
- Montaigne (Natchez, Mississippi)
- Ravenna (Natchez, Mississippi)
- Richmond (Natchez, Mississippi)
- Routhland
Town houses
Footnotes
- ^ "2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved July 24, 2022.
- ^ a b c "Explore Census Data". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved November 24, 2023.
- ^ a b "City and Town Population Totals: 2020-2022". United States Census Bureau. November 24, 2023. Retrieved November 24, 2023.
- ^ Hawkins, Scott (February 27, 2020). "Celebrating Black History: Forks of Road tells story of second largest slave market in the South". Natchez Democrat. Retrieved January 5, 2022.
- ^ Barnett, Jim (February 2003). "The Forks of the Road Slave Market at Natchez". Retrieved January 5, 2022.
- ISBN 978-1888213379. Archivedfrom the original on February 17, 2015. Retrieved March 14, 2019.
- ^ "The Devil's Punchbowl (Mississippi), a story". African American Registry. December 11, 1865.
- ^ Ottenheimer, Davi (June 2, 2021). "Devil's Punch Bowl in Natchez: Confederate Disaster and Propaganda Campaign". flyingpenguin.
- ^ Bernardo, Joseph (December 30, 2008). "Robert Wood (1844-?)". Blackpast.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8071-3027-8.
- ^ Brunker, Mike (August 16, 2004). "Race, politics and the evolving South". NBC News.
- ^ "NowData - NOAA Online Weather Data". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved June 9, 2021.
- ^ "Station: Natchez, MS". U.S. Climate Normals 2020: U.S. Monthly Climate Normals (1991-2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved June 9, 2021.
- ^ United States Census Bureau. "Census of Population and Housing". Retrieved June 4, 2015.
- ^ "Explore Census Data". data.census.gov. Retrieved December 9, 2021.
- ^ "U.S. Census website". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 31, 2008.
- ^ "Censtats" (PDF). Censtats.census.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 25, 2012. Retrieved May 2, 2017.
- Corrections Corporation of America. Retrieved on June 28, 2016. "20 Hobo Fork Road, Natchez, MS 39120"
- ^ "Alcorn State University - School of Business". Archived from the original on June 7, 2012. Retrieved June 9, 2012.
- ^ "Home - Alcorn State University". Alcorn.edu. Archived from the original on April 18, 2012. Retrieved May 2, 2023.
- ^ ISBN 1-299-64851-7.
- ^ James Matthew Reonas, Once Proud Princes: Planters and plantation Culture in Louisiana's Northeast Delta, From the First World War Through the Great Depression (PDF). Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Ph.D. dissertation, December 2006, pp. 263-264. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 21, 2013. Retrieved July 19, 2013.
- ^ "113. Charles C. Cordill". homepages.rootsweb.ancestry.com. Archived from the original on February 18, 2011. Retrieved July 19, 2013.
- Briscoe Center for American History
- ^ "The Barber of Natchez - Natchez National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)". Nps.gov. March 16, 2016. Archived from the original on March 10, 2014. Retrieved May 2, 2017.
- JSTOR 4247487.
- ^ Maude K. Barton (March 14, 1915). "Historic Cemeteries of Natchez". Natchez Democrat. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved November 3, 2009.
- ISBN 9780809243266
- ^ "Behind the Scenes - Rascals and Robbers - the Secret Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Huck Finn". Archived from the original on March 9, 2018. Retrieved March 9, 2018.
- ^ "Filming for 'The Ladykillers' includes outside scenes on Natchez streets". September 4, 2003.
- ^ Shelton, Lindsey (November 16, 2013). "'Get On Up' filming turns back clock on Natchez streets". The Natchez Democrat. Retrieved September 15, 2019.
Further reading
- Anderson, Aaron D. Builders of a New South: Merchants, Capital, and the Remaking of Natchez, 1865-1914. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 2013.
- Boler, Jaime Elizabeth. City under Siege: Resistance and Power in Natchez, Mississippi, 1719–1857, PhD. U. of Southern Mississippi, Dissertation Abstracts International 2006 67(3): 1061-A. DA3209667, 393p.
- Brazy, Martha Jane. An American Planter: Stephen Duncan of Antebellum Natchez and New York, Louisiana State U. Press, 2006. 232 pp.
- Broussard, Joyce L. "Occupied Natchez, Elite Women, and the Feminization of the Civil War," Journal of Mississippi History, 2008 70(2): 179–207.
- Broussard, Joyce L. Stepping Lively in Place: The Not-Married, Free Women of Civil War-Era Natchez, Mississippi. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2016.
- Cox, James L. The Mississippi Almanac. New York: Computer Search & Research, 2001. ISBN 0-9643545-2-7.
- Davis, Jack E. Race Against Time: Culture and Separation in Natchez Since 1930, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001.
- Davis, Ronald L. F. Good and Faithful Labor: from Slavery to Sharecropping in the Natchez District 1860-1890, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982.
- Dittmer, John. Local People: The Civil Rights Movement in Mississippi. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994.
- Dolensky, Suzanne T. "Natchez in 1920: On the Threshold of Modernity." Journal of Mississippi History 72#2 (2011): 95-137 online Archived 2018-12-21 at the Wayback Machine
- Gandy, Thomas H. and Evelyn. The Mississippi Steamboat Era in Historic Photographs: Natchez to New Orleans, 1870–1920. New York: Dover Publications, 1987.
- Gower, Herschel. Charles Dahlgren of Natchez: The Civil War and Dynastic Decline Brassey's, 2002. 293 pp.
- Grant, Richard. The Deepest South of All: True Stories from Natchez, Mississippi. Simon & Schuster, 2020.
- Inglis, G. Douglas. "Searching for Free People of Color in Colonial Natchez," Southern Quarterly 2006 43(2): 97–112
- James, Dorris Clayton. Ante-Bellum Natchez (1968), the standard scholarly study
- Libby, David J. Slavery and Frontier Mississippi, 1720–1835, U. Press of Mississippi, 2004. 163 pp. focus on Natchez
- Nguyen, Julia Huston. "Useful and Ornamental: Female Education in Antebellum Natchez," Journal of Mississippi History 2005 67(4): 291–309
- Nolan, Charles E. St. Mary's of Natchez: The History of a Southern Catholic Congregation, 1716–1988 (2 vol 1992)
- Umoja, Akinyele Omowale. "'We Will Shoot Back': The Natchez Model and Paramilitary Organization in the Mississippi Freedom Movement", Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 32, No. 3 (January 2002), pp. 271–294. In JSTOR
- Way, Frederick. Way's Packet Dictionary, 1848–1994: Passenger Steamboats of the Mississippi River System Since the Advent of Photography in Mid-Continent America. 2nd ed. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1994.
- Wayne, Michael. The Reshaping of Plantation Society: The Natchez District, 1860–1880 (1983).