History of Toledo, Spain
Toledo is the repository of more than 2000 years of history. Successively a Roman municipium, the capital of the Visigothic Kingdom, a major city in Al-Andalus and the Kingdom of Castile. Its many works of art and architecture are the product of three major religions – Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
Antiquity
Toledo (Latin: Toletum) is mentioned by the Roman historian Livy (c. 59 BC – 17 AD) as urbs parva, sed loco munita ("a small city, but fortified by location"). Roman general
The Roman circus in Toledo was one of the largest in Hispania, at 423 metres (1,388 feet) long and 100 metres (330 feet) wide, with a track dimension of 408 metres (1,339 feet) long and 86 metres (282 feet) wide.[6] Chariot races were held on special holidays and were also commissioned by private citizens to celebrate career achievements. A fragmentary stone inscription records circus games paid for by a citizen of unknown name to celebrate his achieving the sevirate, a kind of priesthood conferring high status. Archaeologists have also identified portions of a special seat of the sort used by the city elites to attend circus games, called a sella curulis. The circus could hold up to 15,000 spectators.[6]
During Roman times, Toledo was never a provincial capital nor a conventus iuridicus.[7] It started to gain importance in late antiquity. There are indications that large private houses (domus) within the city walls were enlarged, while several large villas were built north of the city through the third and fourth centuries.[8] Games were held in the circus into the late fourth and early fifth centuries C.E., also an indication of active city life and ongoing patronage by wealthy elites.[9] A church council was held in Toledo in the year 400 to discuss the conflict with Priscillianism.[10]
A second council of Toledo was held in 527. The
Today the historic centre is pierced of basements, passages, wells, baths and ancient water pipes that since Roman times have been used in the city.
Visigothic Toledo
A series of
The Fifth and Sixth Councils of Toledo placed church sanctions on anyone who would challenge the Visigothic kings.[17] The Seventh Council of Toledo instituted a requirement that all bishops in the area of a royal city, that is, of Toledo, must reside for one month per year in Toledo. This was a stage in "the elevation of Toledo as the primatial see of the whole church of the Visgothic kingdom".[18] In addition, the seventh council declared that any clergy fleeing the kingdom, assisting conspirators against the king, or aiding conspirators, would be excommunicated and no one should remove this sentence. The ban on lifting these sentences of excommunication was lifted at the Eighth Council of Toledo in 653, at which, for the first time, decisions were signed by palace officials as well as bishops.[19]
The eighth council of Toledo took measures that enhanced Toledo's significance as the centre of royal power in the Iberian peninsula. The council declared that the election of a new king following the death of the old one should only take place in the royal city, or wherever the old king died.[20] In practice this handed the power to choose kings to only such palace officials and military commanders who were in regular attendance on the king. The decision also took king-making power away from the bishops, who would be in their own sees and would not have time to come together to attend the royal election. The decision did allow the bishop of Toledo, alone among bishops, to be involved in decisions concerning the royal Visigothic succession. The ninth and tenth councils were held in rapid succession in 655 and 656.[20]
When
The
The Twelfth Council of Toledo approved 28 laws against the Jews. Julian of Toledo, despite a Jewish origin, was strongly anti-Semitic as reflected in his writings and activities.[26] The leading Jews of Toledo were assembled in the church of Saint Mary on January 27, 681, where the new laws were read out to them.
The Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Councils of Toledo were held in 683, 684, and 688. The Thirteenth Council restored property and legal rights to those who had rebelled against King Wamba in 673.[27] The Thirteenth Council also approved laws protecting the king's family after the king's death. In 687, Ervig took the penitent state before dying, and the kingship passed to Egica, who was anointed king in Toledo on November 24.[28] In 688, the Fifteenth Council lifted the ban on taking property from the families of former kings, whereupon Egica was able to plunder Ervig's family properties.[29]
In the late seventh century, Toledo became a main centre of literacy and writing in the Iberian peninsula. Toledo's development as a centre of learning was influenced by
In 693, the Sixteenth Council of Toledo condemned Sisebert, Julian's successor as bishop of Toledo, for having rebelled against King Egica in alliance with Liuvigoto, the widow of king Ervig.[37] A rebel king called Suniefred seized power in Toledo briefly at about this time. Whether or not Sisebert's and Suniefred's rebellions were the same or separate is unknown. Suniefred is known only from having minted coins in Toledo during what should have been Egica's reign.[38] The Seventeenth Council of Toledo was held in 694. The Eighteenth Council of Toledo, the last one, took place shortly after Egica's death around 702 or 703.[39]
By the end of the seventh century the bishop of Toledo was the leader of the Spanish bishops, a situation unusual in Europe: "The metropolitan bishops of Toledo had achieved by the last quarter of the seventh century an authority and a primacy that was unique in Western Europe. Not even the pope could count on such support from neighbouring metropolitans."[36] Toledo "had been matched by no other city in western Europe outside Italy as the governmental and symbolic centre of a powerful monarchy."[40] Toledo had "emerged from relative obscurity to become the permanent governmental centre of the Visigothic monarchy; a true capital, whose only equivalent in western Europe was to be Lombard Pavia."[41]
When
Toledo under Islamic rule
Soon after the conquest, Musa and Tariq returned to Damascus. The Arab centre of administration was placed first in Seville, then moved to Cordoba. With most of the rest of the Iberian peninsula, Toledo was ruled from Cordoba by the governor of Al-Andalus, under the ultimate notional command of the Umayyad Caliph in Damascus. Arab conquerors had often replaced former capital cities with new ones to mark the change in political power, and they did so here: "Toledo suffered a period of profound decline throughout much of the earlier centuries of Arab dominance in the peninsula."[51] The invaders were ethnically diverse, and available evidence suggests that in the area of Toledo, Berber settlement predominated over Arab.[52]
In 742 the Berbers in Al-Andalus rebelled against the Arab Umayyad governors. They took control of the north and marched south, laying siege to Toledo. After a siege of one month the Berber troops were defeated outside Toledo by troops sent from Cordoba by the governor
There is evidence that Toledo retained its importance as a literary and ecclesiastical center into the middle 700s, in the
An archdeacon in Toledo called Evantius, who was active around 720 and died in 737, wrote a letter to address the existence of judaizing tendencies among the Christians of Zaragoza, specifically the belief that there are unclean forms of meat and the literal interpretation of Deuteronomic law.[59] A deacon and cantor from Toledo called Peter wrote a second letter, to Seville, in about the year 750, to explain that they were celebrating Easter and a September liturgical fast incorrectly, again confusing them with Jewish feasts celebrated at the same time.[60] These letters show that some of the primacy of the church of Toledo within the Iberian peninsula still existed in the 700s: "Not only were its clerics still well enough equipped in intellectual terms to provide authoritative guidance on a wide range of ecclesiastical discipline and doctrine, but this was also actively sought."[61]
There is a strong possibility that the
In 756
Under the
After Al-Hakam's accession and departure, a poet resident in Toledo named Girbib ibn-Abdallah wrote verses against the Umayyads, helping to inspire a revolt in Toledo against the new emir in 797. Chroniclers disagree as to the leader of this revolt, though Ibn Hayyan states that it was led by Ibn Hamir. Al-Hakam sent Amrus ibn Yusuf to fight the rebellion. Amrus took control of the Berber troops in Talavera. From there, Amrus negotiated with a faction inside Toledo called the Banu Mahsa, promising to make them governors if they would betray Ibn Hamir. The Banu Mahsa brought Ibn Hamir's head to Amrus at Talavera, but instead of making them governors, Amrus executed them. Amrus now persuaded the remaining factions in Toledo to submit to him. Once he entered Toledo, he invited the leaders to a celebratory feast. As they entered Amrus' fortress, the guests were beheaded one by one and their bodies thrown in a specially dug ditch. The massacre was thus called "The Day of the Ditch." Amrus' soldiers killed about 700 people that day. Amrus was governor of Toledo until 802.[71][72]
"In 785, Bishop Elipandus of Toledo wrote a letter condemning the teaching of a certain
By the end of the 700s, the Umayyads had created three frontier districts stretching out from the southern core of their Iberian territories. These were called the
Following the death of
The
By the 870s the Umayyads had regained control over Toledo. In 878 Al-Mundhir led an expedition against Asturias, of which one of the main components was a force from Toledo. One source portrays this raid as an attack by the 'King of Toledo', but other sources portray it as an Umayyad raid involving substantial Toledan forces. The forces from Toledo were defeated by Alfonso III of Asturias at the Battle of Polvoraria. Spanish chronicles state that twelve to thirteen thousand in the Toledo army were killed in the battle. Collins states that these figures are "totally unreliable" but demonstrate that Asturian chroniclers thought of this as an important and decisive battle.[86]
In 920s and 930s, the governors of Toledo were in rebellion against the Umayyad regime in Cordoba, led by
In 1009 one of the last Umayyad caliphs,
After the fall of the Umayyad caliphate in the early 11th century, Toledo became an independent
In 1062,
After the death of
In 1074, Alfonso VI campaigned against the taifa of Granada with the assistance of al-Mamun of Toledo. Alfonso received troops from al-Mamun in addition to the parias payment, facilitating his military campaigns. The campaign was successful, and Granada was forced to begin parias payments to Alfonso VI. After this, al-Mamun proceeded to attack Cordoba, which was then under the control of his enemy al-Mutamid, taifa king of Sevilla. He conquered Cordoba in January 1075.[99]
The parias of Toledo to Alfonso VI in the 1070s amounted to approximately 12 thousand gold dinars. This money contributed strongly to Alfonso VI's ability to project military strength throughout the Iberian peninsula.[100]
In 1076, al-Mamun of Toledo was killed in the city of Cordoba, which he had conquered only the year before. The taifa king of Sevilla took the opportunity to reconquer Cordoba and seize other territory on the borderlands between the taifas of Sevilla and Toledo. Al-Mamun was succeeded by his son, al-Qadir, the last taifa king of Toledo. Possibly keeping an earlier promise to al-Mamun, Alfonso VI at first supported the succession of al-Qadir. The taifa of Valencia, which had been conquered by al-Mamun, revolted against al-Qadir and ceased parias payments to Toledo.[101]
Taking advantage of al-Qadir's weakness, al-Mutamid of Sevilla took lands in La Mancha from the taifa of Toledo, and from there conquered the taifas of Valencia and Denia in 1078. After this, al-Qadir lost popularity in Toledo. There was a revolt against him, and he was forced to flee the city and appeal to Alfonso VI for help. The rebels invited the king of Badajoz, al-Mutawakkil, to rule Toledo. The king of Badajoz occupied Toledo in 1079, but Alfonso VI sent forces to help al-Qadir recover Toledo. Alfonso captured the fortress town of Coria, which controlled a pass from Castilian lands into the lands of the taifa of Badajoz. Since Alfonso now threatened him through Coria, al-Mutawakkil withdrew from Toledo and al-Qadir was able to return to Toledo. As the price of his help, Alfonso obtained the right to station two garrisons of his soldiers on the lands of Toledo, at al-Qadir's expense.[102]
A second revolt against al-Qadir took place in 1082. This time al-Qadir defeated the rebels in Toledo, chased them to Madrid, and defeated them there.[103] It was about this time at the latest that Alfonso VI decided to seize Toledo for himself, though some authors have argued that the plan to conquer Toledo existed by 1078.[104] In 1083, Alfonso VI campaigned against al-Mutamid, bringing his forces right up against Sevilla and reaching the city of Tarifa, with the intention of dissuading al-Mutamid from any resistance against the coming seizure of Toledo.[105] In 1084, Alfonso set siege to Toledo, preventing the city from being supplied and also preventing agricultural work in the area. Over the winter of 1084 to 1085 the siege was maintained, while the king spent the winter north in Leon and Sahagun. In spring 1085 Alfonso personally rejoined the siege with new forces. The city soon fell and Alfonso made his triumphant entry to the city on May 24, 1085.
Toledo experienced a period known as
Toledo under Castilian rule
On May 25, 1085, Alfonso VI of Castile took Toledo and established direct personal control over the Moorish city from which he had been exacting tribute, ending the medieval
During the persecution of the Jews in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, members of the Jewish community of Toledo produced texts on their long history in Toledo. It was at this time that Don
Modern Era
Toledo's Alcázar (Latinized Arabic word for palace-castle, from the Arabic القصر, al-qasr) became renowned in the 19th and 20th centuries as a military academy. At the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, its garrison was famously besieged by Republican forces.
Population
Date | Population[110][111][112] | |
---|---|---|
c. 1200 | 37,000 | |
1503 | 25,000 | |
1528 | 31,120 | |
c. 1530 | 38,000 | |
1561 | 59,405 | |
1569 | 53,770 | |
1571 | 54,488 | |
1574 | 53,961 | |
1587 | 55,766 | |
1591 | 52,680 | |
1597 | 47,065 |
See also
References
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- ^ Kulikowski, Michael (2004). Late Roman Spain and Its Cities. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
- ^ a b c Rubio Rivera, Rebeca. "El circo romano de Toledo y la Vega Baja en época romana". scribd.com. Retrieved 24 November 2015.
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- ^ Rubio Rivera, Rebeca (2001). El Circo Romano de Toledo y la Vega Baja en Época Romana. pp. 38–39. Retrieved 25 November 2015.
- ^ Richardson, John (1996). The Romans in Spain. Blackwell.
- ^ Kulikowski, Michael (2004). Late Roman Spain and Its Cities. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 282–284.
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- ^ Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409-711. Blackwell. p. 57.
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- ^ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797. Blackwell. p. 195.
- ^ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 108–110.
- ^ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. p. 119.
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- ^ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 165–166.
- ^ Roger Collins, Early Medieval Spain: Unity in Diversity, 400–1000, (St. Martin's Press, 1995), 187.
- ^ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. p. 172.
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- ^ Abadal y de Vinyals, Ramón (1949). La batalla del Adopcionismo en la desintegración de la iglesia visigoda (PDF). Barcelona.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 228–229.
- ^ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. p. 229.
- ^ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 229–230.
- ^ Collins, Roger (2014). Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796-1031 (Paperback 2014 ed.). Wiley Blackwell. pp. 27–28.
- ^ Collins, Roger (2014). Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796-1031 (Paperback 2014 ed.). Wiley Blackwell. pp. 43–44, 47.
- ^ Ann Christys, Christians in Al-Andalus 711–1000, (Curzon Press, 2002), 20.
- ^ Collins, Roger (2014). Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796-1031 (Paperback 2014 ed.). Wiley Blackwell. pp. 74–76.
- ^ Collins, Roger (2014). Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796-1031 (Paperback 2014 ed.). Wiley Blackwell. pp. 79–81.
- ^ Collins, Roger (2014). Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796-1031 (Paperback 2014 ed.). Wiley Blackwell. p. 171.
- ^ Collins, Roger (2014). Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796-1031 (Paperback 2014 ed.). Wiley Blackwell. p. 145.
- ^ Collins, Roger (2014). Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796-1031 (Paperback 2014 ed.). Wiley Blackwell. p. 171.
- ^ Collins, Roger (2014). Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796-1031 (Paperback ed.). Wiley Blackwell. pp. 198–199.
- ^ Reilly, Bernard F. (1992). Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031-1157 (1995 paperback ed.). Blackwell. pp. 5, 9, 15.
- ^ Reilly, Bernard F. (1992). Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031-1157 (1995 paperback ed.). Blackwell. p. 20.
- ^ Reilly, Bernard F. (1992). Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031-1157 (1995 paperback ed.). Blackwell. pp. 6–7.
- ^ Reilly, Bernard F. (1992). Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031-1157 (1995 paperback ed.). Blackwell. pp. 36–37.
- ^ Reilly, Bernard F. (1992). Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031-1157 (1995 paperback ed.). Blackwell. pp. 5, 7.
- ^ Reilly, Bernard F. (1992). Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031-1157 (1995 paperback ed.). Blackwell. p. 40.
- ^ Reilly, Bernard F. (1992). Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031-1157 (1995 paperback ed.). Blackwell. p. 41.
- ^ Reilly, Bernard F. (1988). The Kingdom of León-Castilla under King Alfonso VI (1999 online ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 68. Retrieved 6 December 2016.
- ^ Reilly, Bernard F. (1992). Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031-1157 (1995 paperback ed.). Blackwell. p. 75.
- ^ Reilly, Bernard F. (1992). Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031-1157 (1995 paperback ed.). Blackwell. pp. 58, 76.
- ^ Reilly, Bernard F. (1992). Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031-1157 (1995 paperback ed.). Blackwell. pp. 76, 80.
- ^ Reilly, Bernard F. (1992). Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031-1157 (1995 paperback ed.). Blackwell. pp. 80–81.
- ^ Reilly, Bernard F. (1992). Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031-1157 (1995 paperback ed.). Blackwell. p. 81.
- ^ Reilly, Bernard F. (1992). Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031-1157 (1995 paperback ed.). Blackwell. pp. 81–84.
- ^ Reilly, Bernard F. (1992). Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031-1157 (1995 paperback ed.). Blackwell. p. 84.
- ^ Historic City of Toledo - UNESCO World Heritage
- ^ Abrabanel's Commentary on the First Prophets (Pirush Al Nevi'im Rishonim), end of II Kings, p. 680, Jerusalem 1955 (Hebrew). See also Shelomó ibn Verga in Shevet Yehudah, pp.6b-7a, Lemberg 1846 (Hebrew)
- ^ María Cruz Fernández Castro (1995). La Prehistoria de la Península Ibérica. Crítica.
- ^ John S. Richardson (1996). The Romans in Spain. Blackwell.
- ISBN 978-989-8474-11-7.
- JSTOR 1595101.
- ISBN 84-87515-57-6.