History of the automobile
Development of the
Development was hindered in the mid-19th century by a backlash against large vehicles, yet progress continued on some internal combustion engines. The engine evolved as engineers created
From 1886, many inventors and entrepreneurs got into the "horseless carriage" business, both in America and Europe, and inventions and innovations rapidly furthered the development and production of automobiles. Ransom E. Olds founded Oldsmobile in 1897, and introduced the Curved Dash Oldsmobile in 1901. Olds pioneered the assembly line using identical, interchangeable parts, producing thousands of Oldsmobiles by 1903. Although sources differ, approximately 19,000 Oldsmobiles were built, with the last produced in 1907. Production likely peaked from 1903 through 1905, at up to 5,000 units a year. In 1908, the Ford Motor Company further revolutionized automobile production by developing and selling its Ford Model T at a relatively modest price. From 1913, introducing an advanced moving assembly line allowed Ford to lower the Model T's price by almost 50%, making it the first mass-affordable automobile.[9]
Power sources
The early automobile history concentrated on searching for a reliable portable power unit to propel the vehicle.
Steam-powered wheeled vehicles
17th and 18th centuries
Steam-powered self-propelled vehicles large enough to transport people and cargo were devised in the late 18th century. Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot demonstrated his fardier à vapeur ("steam dray"), an experimental steam-driven artillery tractor, in 1770 and 1771. Cugnot's design proved impractical, and his invention was not developed in his native France. The center of innovation shifted to Great Britain. By 1784, William Murdoch had built a working model of a steam carriage in Redruth[11] and in 1801 Richard Trevithick was running a full-sized vehicle on the roads in Camborne.
19th century
During the 19th century, attempts were made to introduce steam-powered vehicles. Innovations such as hand brakes, multispeed
In 1816, a professor at
In 1867, Canadian jeweler Henry Seth Taylor demonstrated his four-wheeled "steam buggy" at the Stanstead Fair in Stanstead, Quebec and again the following year.[13] The basis of the buggy, which he began building in 1865, was a high-wheeled carriage with bracing to support a two-cylinder steam engine mounted on the floor.[14] In 1873, Frenchman Amédée Bollée built self-propelled steam road vehicles to transport groups of passengers.
The first automobile suitable for use on existing wagon roads in the United States was a steam-powered vehicle invented in 1871 by Dr. J.W. Carhart, a minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church, in
20th century
- Pre-WWII
Steam-powered road vehicles, both cars and wagons, reached the peak of their development in the early 1930s with fast-steaming lightweight boilers and efficient engine designs. Internal combustion engines also developed considerably during World War I, becoming easier to operate and more reliable. The development of the high-speed diesel engine from 1930 began to replace them for wagons, accelerated in the UK by tax changes making steam wagons uneconomic overnight. Although a few designers continued to advocate steam power, no significant developments in the production of steam cars took place after Doble in 1931.
- Post-WWII
Whether steam cars will ever be reborn in later technological eras remains to be seen. Magazines such as Light Steam Power continued to describe them into the 1980s. The 1950s saw interest in steam-turbine cars powered by small nuclear reactors[19] (this was also true of aircraft). Still, the fears about the dangers inherent in nuclear fission technology soon killed these ideas.
Electric automobiles
19th century
In 1828,
Sources point to different creations, such as the first electric car. Between 1832 and 1839 (the exact year is uncertain), Robert Anderson of Scotland invented a crude electric carriage powered by non-rechargeable primary cells. In November 1881, French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated a working three-wheeled car powered by electricity at the International Exposition of Electricity.[23] English inventor Thomas Parker, who was responsible for innovations such as electrifying the London Underground, overhead tramways in Liverpool and Birmingham, and the smokeless fuel coalite, built an electric car in London in 1884, using his own specially designed high-capacity rechargeable batteries.[24] However, some others regard the Flocken Elektrowagen of 1888 by German inventor Andreas Flocken as the first actual electric car.[20]
20th century
Electric cars enjoyed popularity between the late 19th century and the early 20th century when electricity was among the preferred methods for automobile propulsion. Advances in internal combustion technology, especially the electric starter, soon rendered this advantage moot; the greater range of gasoline cars, quicker refueling times, and growing petroleum infrastructure, along with the mass production of gasoline vehicles by companies such as the Ford Motor Company, which reduced prices of gasoline cars to less than half that of equivalent electric cars, led to a decline in the use of electric propulsion, effectively removing it from markets such as the US by the 1930s.
21st century
Increased concerns over the
Internal combustion engines
Gas mixtures
The lack of suitable
Gasoline
Benz built his first automobile, the Benz Patent Motorcar, in 1885 in Mannheim. It is considered the first modern car—a practical, marketable automobile for everyday use—and the first in series production.[31] Benz was granted a patent for his automobile on 29 January 1886,[32] and began the first production of automobiles in 1888, after Bertha Benz, his wife, had proved—with the first long-distance trip in August 1888, from Mannheim to Pforzheim and back—that the horseless coach was capable of extended travel. Since 2008, a Bertha Benz Memorial Route commemorates this event.[33]
Soon after, Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Stuttgart in 1889 designed a vehicle from scratch to be an automobile, rather than a horse-drawn carriage fitted with an engine. They also are usually credited with inventing the first motorcycle in 1885.[12]: 26
In 1891,
The first four-wheeled gasoline-driven automobile in the United Kingdom was built in
George Foote Foss of Sherbrooke, Quebec, built a single-cylinder gasoline car in 1896, which he drove for four years, ignoring city officials' warnings of arrest for his "mad antics".[13]
Eras of invention
Horseless carriage or veteran era
The American George B. Selden filed for a patent on 8 May 1879. His application included the engine and its use in a four-wheeled car. Selden filed a series of amendments to his application, which stretched out the legal process, resulting in a delay of 16 years before the patent was granted on 5 November 1895.[35] Selden licensed his patent to most major American automakers, collecting a fee on each car they produced and creating the Association of Licensed Automobile Manufacturers. The Ford Motor Company fought this patent in court,[36] and eventually won on appeal. Henry Ford testified that the patent did more to hinder than encourage development of autos in the United States.[37]
The first automobiles were produced by Carl Benz in 1888 in Germany and, under license from Benz, in France by Emile Roger. There were numerous others, including tricycle builders Rudolf Egg, Edward Butler, and Léon Bollée.[12]: 20–23 Bollée, using a 650 cc (40 cu in) engine of his own design, enabled his driver, Jamin, to average 45 km/h (28 mph) in the 1897 Paris-Tourville rally.[12]: 23 By 1900, mass production of automobiles had begun in France and the United States.
The first company formed exclusively to build automobiles was Panhard et Levassor in France, which is also credited for introducing the first four-cylinder engine.[12]: 22 Formed in 1889, Panhard was followed by Peugeot two years later. By the start of the 20th century, the automobile industry began taking off in Western Europe, especially in France, where 30,204 were produced in 1903, representing 48.8 percent of world automobile production that year.[38]
Across the northern US, local mechanics experimented with various prototypes. In Iowa, for example, by 1890, Jesse O. Wells drove a steam-powered Locomobile. There were numerous experiments in electric vehicles driven by storage batteries. The first users ordered the early gasoline-powered cars, including Haynes, Mason, and Duesenberg automobiles. Blacksmiths and mechanics started operating repair and gasoline stations.
The first motor car in Central Europe was produced by the
Within a few years, hundreds of producers across the Western world were using many
Innovation was not limited to the vehicles themselves. Increasing numbers of cars propelled the growth of the petroleum industry,[47]: 60–61 as well as the development of technology to produce gasoline (replacing kerosene and coal oil) and of improvements in heat-tolerant mineral oil lubricants (replacing vegetable and animal oils).[47]: 60
There were social effects, also. Music would be made about cars, such as "In My Merry Oldsmobile" (a tradition that continues in several genres). At the same time, in 1896,
By 1900, the early centers of national automotive industry developed in many countries, including Belgium (home to Vincke, that copied Benz;
Throughout the veteran car era, the automobile was seen more as a novelty than a genuinely useful device. Breakdowns were frequent, fuel was difficult to obtain, roads suitable for traveling were scarce, and rapid innovation meant that a year-old car was nearly worthless. Significant breakthroughs in proving the usefulness of the automobile came with the historic long-distance drive of Bertha Benz in 1888, when she traveled more than 80 km (50 mi) from Mannheim to Pforzheim, to make people aware of the potential of the vehicles her husband, Karl Benz, manufactured, and after Horatio Nelson Jackson's successful transcontinental drive across the US in 1903 on a Winton car.
Brass/Edwardian era
The Brass or Edwardian period lasted from roughly 1905 through 1914 and the beginning of World War I. It is generally referred to as the
Within the 15 years that make up this era, the various experimental designs and alternate power systems would be marginalized. Although the modern
By 1906, steam car development had advanced, and they were among the fastest road vehicles in that period.[citation needed]
Throughout this era, the development of
Between 1907 and 1912 in the United States, the high-wheel motor buggy (resembling the horse buggy of before 1900) was in its heyday, with over 75 makers including Holsman (Chicago), IHC (Chicago), and Sears (which sold via catalog); the high-wheeler would be killed by the Model T.[12]: 65 In 1912, Hupp (in the US, supplied by Hale & Irwin) and BSA (in the UK) pioneered the use of all-steel bodies,[47]: 63 joined in 1914 by Dodge (who produced Model T bodies).[47]: 62 While it would be another two decades before all-steel bodies would be standard, the change would mean improved supplies of superior-quality wood for furniture makers.[12]
The 1908 New York to Paris Race was the world's first circumnavigation by automobile. German, French, Italian, and American teams began in New York City on 12 February 1908, with three competitors ultimately reaching Paris. The US-built Thomas Flyer with George Schuster (driver) won the race covering 35,000 km (22,000 mi) in 169 days. Also in 1908, the first South American automobile was built in Peru, the Grieve.[50] In 1909, Rambler became the first car company to equip its cars with a spare tire that was mounted on a fifth wheel.[51]
Some examples of cars of the period included:[citation needed]
- 1907 Takuri—the first entirely Japanese-made gasoline engine car produced by Komanosuke Uchiyama in April 1907. Also, in Japan, the Hatsudoki Seizo Co. Ltd. is formed, which was later renamed in 1951 as Daihatsu Kōgyō Kabushiki-gaisha.
- 1908–1927 Ford Model T—the era's most widely produced and available four-seater car. It used a planetary transmission and had a pedal-based control system. Ford T was proclaimed the most influential car of the 20th century in the international Car of the Century awards.
- 1909 Hudson Model 20—named after its rated power output and sold on its first market for US$900 (equivalent to $30,520 in 2023).
- 1909 Morgan Runabout—a popular cyclecar, cyclecars were sold in greater quantities than four-seater cars in this period.[52]
- 1910 Hispano-Suiza Alphonso.
- 1910–1920 Bugatti Type 13—a notable racing and touring model with advanced engineering and design. Similar models were Types 15, 17, 22, and 23.
- 1914–1917 Dattogo—a two-cylinder, 10 hp (7,500 W) "all-Japanese" car manufactured in seven units by the Kaishinsha Motor Works operated by Masujiro Hashimoto in Tokyo, while importing, assembling, and selling British cars. Kaishinsha was the first automobile manufacturing business in Japan.
- 1917 Mitsubishi Model A—an all hand-built car built by Japanese company Mitsubishi in limited numbers for Japanese executives.
Vintage era
The vintage era lasted from the end of
American auto companies in the 1920s expected they would soon sell six million cars a year but did not do so until 1955. Numerous companies disappeared.
Examples of period vehicles:[citation needed]
- 1922–1939 Austin 7—a widely copied vehicle serving as a template for many cars such as BMW and Nissan.
- 1922–1931 Lancia Lambda—an advanced car for the time, was the first to feature a load-bearing monocoque and independent front suspension.[citation needed]
- 1924–1929 Bugatti Type 35—one of the most successful racing cars with over 1,000 victories in five years.[citation needed]
- 1925–1928 Hanomag 2/10 PS—early example of pontoon styling.
- 1927–1931 Ford Model A (1927–1931)—after keeping the brass-era Model T in production for too long, Ford broke from the past by restarting its model series with the 1927 Model A. More than four million were produced, making it the bestselling model of the era. The Ford Model A was a prototype for beginning Soviet mass car production (GAZ A).
- 1930 Cadillac V-16—developed at the height of the vintage era, the V16-powered Cadillac would join Bugatti's Royale as a legendary ultraluxury car of the era.
Pre-war era
The pre-war part of the classic era began with the Great Depression in 1930, and ended with the recovery after World War II, commonly placed during 1946. It was in this period that integrated fenders and fully-closed bodies began to dominate sales, with the new saloon/sedan body style even incorporating a trunk or boot at the rear for storage. The old open-top runabouts, phaetons, and touring cars were largely phased out by the end of the classic era as wings, running boards, and headlights were gradually integrated with the body of the car.
By the 1930s, most of the mechanical technology used in today's automobiles had been invented, although some ideas were later "re-invented" and credited to others. For example,
Examples of pre-war automobiles:[citation needed]
- 1932–1939 synchromesh gearbox[citation needed]
- 1932–1948 flathead V8in mainstream vehicles
- 1934–1938 Tatra 77—first serial-produced car with an aerodynamical design
- 1934–1940 Bugatti Type 57—a refined automobile for the wealthy
- 1934–1956 Citroën Traction Avant—first mass-produced front-wheel drive car, built with monocoque chassis
- 1936–1955 MG T series—sports cars
- 1938–2003 Volkswagen Beetle—a design that was produced for over 60 years with over 20 million units assembled in several countries
- 1936–1939 Rolls-Royce Phantom III—V12 engine
Postwar era
A significant change in automobile design since World War II was the popularity of pontoon style, in which running boards were eliminated and fenders were incorporated into the body. Among the first representatives of the style were the Soviet GAZ-M20 Pobeda (1946), British Standard Vanguard (1947), US Studebaker Champion, and Kaiser (1946), as well as the Czech Tatra T600 Tatraplan (1946) and the Italian Cisitalia 220 sports car (1947).
Automobile design and production finally emerged from the military orientation and the shadow of war in 1949, the year
Throughout the 1950s, engine power and vehicle speeds rose, designs became more integrated and artful, and automobiles were marketed internationally. Alec Issigonis's Mini and Fiat's 500 diminutive cars were introduced in Europe, while the similar kei car class became popular in Japan. The Volkswagen Beetle continued production after World War II and began exports to other nations, including the US. At the same time, Nash introduced the Nash Rambler, the first successful modern compact car made in the US,[56] while the standard models produced by the "Big Three" domestic automakers grew larger, featuring increasing amounts of chrome trim, and luxury as exemplified by the Cadillac Eldorado Brougham. The markets in Europe expanded with new small-sized automobiles, as well as expensive grand tourers (GT), like the Ferrari America.
The market changed in the 1960s, as the US "Big Three" automakers began facing competition from imported cars, European makers adopted advanced technologies, and Japan emerged as a car-producing nation. Japanese companies began to export some of their more popular cars in Japan internationally, such as the
Technology developments included the widespread use of
The 1970s were turbulent years for automakers and buyers, with prominent events reshaping the industry, such as the
Toward the end of the 20th century, the US Big Three (GM, Ford, and Chrysler) partially lost their leading position. Japan became a leader in car production for a time, and cars began to be mass manufactured in new Asian, East European, and other countries.
Examples of postwar cars:
- 1946–1958 GAZ-M20 Pobeda—Soviet car with full pontoon design
- 1947–1958 Standard Vanguard—British mass-market car with a complete pontoon design
- 1948–1971 Morris Minor—an early postwar car exported around the world
- 1953–1971 Cadillac Eldorado Brougham—first generations were representative of tailfindesign
- 1955–1976 Citroën DS—aerodynamic design and innovative technology, awarded third place as Car of the 20th Century
- 1959–2000 Mini—a radical and innovative small car that was manufactured for four decades; awarded second place as Car of the 20th Century
- 1960-1990 Volkswagen Brasília
- 1961–1975 Jaguar E-Type—a classic sports car design
- 1963–1989 Porsche 911—a sports car was awarded fifth place as Car of the 20th Century
- 1964–present Ford Mustang—the pony car that became one of the bestselling cars of the era
- 1966–end of the 20th century Fiat 124—an Italian car that was produced under license in many other countries including the Soviet Union
- 1966–1971 front wheel drive and introducing the "double offset joint" driveshaft to the front wheels
- 1967 NSU Ro 80—the basic wedge profile of this design was emulated in subsequent decades,[64] unlike its Wankel engine
- late 1960s–early 1980s Gurgel BR-800
- late 1960s–early 1980s Gurgel Supermini
- 1969 Nissan S30—Japanese sports car[65]
- 1977–present Lada Niva—the first mass-produced full-time all-wheel drive car
Modern era
This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2014) |
The modern era is normally defined as the 40 years preceding the current year.
Some contemporary developments are the proliferation of front- and all-wheel drive, the adoption of the diesel engine, and the ubiquity of fuel injection. Most modern passenger cars are front-wheel-drive monocoque or unibody designs with transversely mounted engines.
Body styles have changed as well in the modern era. Three types, the
The modern era has also rapidly improved
The
Since 2009, China has become the world's largest car manufacturer, producing more than Japan, the US, and Europe. Besides the increasing car production in Asia and other countries, there has been growth in transnational corporate groups, with the production of transnational automobiles sharing the same platforms and badge engineering or rebadging to suit different markets and consumer segments.
Since the end of the 20th century, several award competitions for cars and trucks have become widely known, such as
Examples of modern cars:[citation needed]
- 1966–1992 Oldsmobile Toronado—First modern-era American car with front-wheel drive as well as introduced electronic antilock braking system and airbag.[68][69]
- 1972–present Mercedes-Benz S-Class—Seat belt pretensioner, and electronic traction control system
- 1975–present BMW 3 Series—the 3 Series has been on Car and Driver magazine's annual Ten Best list 17 times
- 1977–present Honda Accord saloon/sedan—a Japanese sedan that became popular in the US
- 1983–present Chrysler minivans—the two-box minivan design nearly pushed the station wagon out of the market
- 1984–present Renault Espace—first mass one-volume car of noncommercial MPV class
- 1986–2019 Ford Taurus—a midsized front-wheel drive sedan that dominated the US market in the late 1980s
- 1997–present Toyota Prius—launched in the Japanese market and became a popular hybrid electric vehicle in many markets.[70]
- 1998–present Ford Focus—a popular hatchbacks and Ford's bestselling world car
- 2008–2012 serial productionfor sale in the US in the modern era. It sold about 2,500 units worldwide.
- 2008–2013
- 2009–present,
- 2010–present, Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Volt—all-electric car and plugin hybrid correspondingly, launched in December 2010, are the world's top-selling mass production vehicles of their kind.[75] As of December 2015[update], global Volt sales totaled over 100,000.[76] Nissan Leaf global sales achieved the 300,000 unit milestone in January 2018, making the Leaf the world's all-time bestselling highway-capable electric car in history.[77]
- 2012–present, Tesla Model S—Plugin electric vehicle was ranked the world's bestselling plugin electric vehicle in 2015.[78] It was also named car of the century by Car and Driver.[79]
See also
- Automotive industry – current production and companies
- History of the internal combustion engine
- History of transport
- Motorcycle
- Timeline of motor vehicle brands
- Timeline of North American automobiles
- Beginnings
- Benz Patent Motorwagen("patent motorcar"; 1885), a three-wheel vehicle widely regarded as the world's first production automobile
- Benz Velo (1894), follow-up 4-wheel model of the Benz Patent Motorwagen
- Early developments essential to the development of automobiles
- Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, physics of the internal combustion engine
- Illuminating gas, first internal combustion engine fuel
- Ligroin or heavy naphtha, first liquid automotive fuel, n-hexane
- Car and car engine designers, chronologically by first vehicle/engine built
- Nicolaus Otto, developer of the first successful compressed charge gaseous fueled internal combustion engine (1860s-70s)
- Wilhelm Maybach, designed engines starting in the 1870s-80s; the first motorbike (1885), the second internal combustion car (1889)
- Gottlieb Daimler, German engineer, pioneer of internal-combustion engines and automobile development (1870s and on)
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- ^ Cobb, Jeff (6 October 2015). "Tesla Model S is America's Best-Selling Plug-in Car This Year". hybridcars.com. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
- ^ "Tesla Model S Reviews". Car and Driver. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
Further reading
- Berger, Michael L. (2001). The automobile in American history and culture: a reference guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780313245589.
- Black, Edwin (2006). Internal Combustion: How Corporations and Governments Addicted the World to Oil and Derailed the Alternatives. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 9780312359089.
- Clarke, Sally H. (2007). Trust and Power: Consumers, the Modern Corporation, and the Making of the United States Automobile Market. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521868785.
discusses trust, consumerism, and the modern corporation
- ISBN 0688048382.
- Horner, Craig (2021). The Emergence of Bicycling and Automobility in Britain. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-4725-7209-7.
- Norton, Peter D. (2011). Fighting Traffic: The Dawn of the Motor Age in the American City. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262516129.
- Kay, Jane Holtz (1997). Asphalt nation: how the automobile took over America, and how we can take it back. Crown Publishers. ISBN 0517587025.
Early sources
- Krarup, M.C. (November 1906). "Automobities for Every Use". The World's Work: A History of Our Time. Vol. XIII. pp. 8163–8178. Retrieved 8 November 2020. Includes photos of many c. 1906 special purpose automobiles.
- "New England in Motor History; 1890 to 1916". The Automobile Journal. 41: 9. 25 February 1916.
- Norman, Henry (April 1902). "The Coming of the Automobile". The World's Work: A History of Our Time. Vol. V. pp. 3304–3308. Retrieved 10 July 2009.
External links
- Automuseum Dr. Carl Benz, Ladenburg/Germany
- Bertha Benz Memorial Route
- University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Transportation photographs Digital collection depicting various modes of transportation (including automobiles) in the Pacific Northwest region and western US during the first half of the 20th century.
- History of the automobile on About.com:Inventors site
- History of Automobile Air Conditioning on NYC.net
- Automotive History – An ongoing photographic history of the automobile.
- Taking the Wheel, Manufacturers' catalogs from the first decade of American automobiles