Limalok
Limalok | |
---|---|
Summit depth | 1,255 metres (4,117 ft) |
Summit area | 636-square-kilometre (246 sq mi) |
Location | |
Group | Ratak Chain |
Coordinates | 5°36′N 172°18′E / 5.6°N 172.3°E[1] |
Country | Marshall Islands |
Geology | |
Type | Guyot |
Age of rock | Cretaceous |
Limalok (formerly known as Harrie or Harriet) is a
Limalok is formed by
.The platform sank below sea level 48 ± 2 million years ago during the Eocene, perhaps because it moved through the
Name and research history
Limalok was formerly known as Harrie Guyot
Geography and geology
Local setting
Limalok lies at the southernmost
The relatively small[14] seamount rises from a depth of 4,500 metres (14,800 ft)[15] to a minimum depth of 1,255 metres (4,117 ft) below sea level.[16] The top of Limalok is 47.5 kilometres (29.5 mi) long[3] and broadens southeastward from less than 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) to more than 24 kilometres (15 mi),[13] forming a 636-square-kilometre (246 sq mi) summit platform.[17] The carbonate platform of Limalok crops out at the edges of the summit plateau.[10] Wide terraces[10] and numerous fault blocks surround the summit plateau;[18] some of the latter may have formed after the carbonate platform ceased growing.[19]
Mili Atoll and Limalok emerge from a common pedestal
Regional setting
The Pacific Ocean seafloor, especially the parts that are of
The formation of many seamounts
From plate motion reconstructions, it has been established that the Marshall Islands were located in the era now occupied by present-day French Polynesia during the time of active volcanism. Both regions display numerous island chains, anomalously shallow ocean floors and the presence of volcanoes.[43] About eight hotspots have formed a large number of islands and seamounts in that region, with disparate geochemistries;[44] the geological province has been called "South Pacific Isotopic and Thermal Anomaly" or DUPAL anomaly.[45]
Composition
Limalok has erupted
Alteration of the original material has formed
Carbonate, clay,
Geologic history
Paleogene graphical timeline | ||
← |
Vertical axis scale: millions of years ago
Limalok is the youngest guyot in the Marshall Islands.
Volcanism and first biotic phenomena
Limalok first formed as a
The soils on Limalok were colonized by vegetation
Platform carbonates and reefs
The erosion of the volcanic island was followed after some time by the beginning of carbonate platform growth.[69] Sedimentation began in the Paleocene with one or two events in which the seamount was submerged;[13] the start of sedimentation has been dated to about 57.5 ± 2.5 million years ago.[70] After a Paleocene phase with open sea or back-reef conditions, lagoonal environments developed on the seamount during the Eocene.[71] It is possible that the platform periodically emerged above sea level, leading to its erosion.[54][72] It is not clear if the platform took the form of an atoll, or of a shallow platform shielded on one side by islands or shoals, similar to the present-day Bahama Banks.[28][73] Sea level rise at the Paleocene-Eocene transition may have triggered a transformation from a partially shielded platform to a true ring-shaped atoll.[74]
The carbonate platform reaches an overall thickness of 290 metres (950 ft) in one
The dominant living beings on Limalok were
Drowning and post-drowning evolution
A carbonate platform is said to 'drown' when sedimentation can no longer keep up with relative rises in sea level, and carbonate deposition stops.[83][84] Limalok drowned during the early-middle Eocene, soon after the start of the Lutetian,[54] 48 ± 2 million years ago.[70] It is the most recent carbonate platform in the region to submerge:[9] the similar platform at neighbouring Mili Atoll is still depositing carbonate.[85][86]
The drownings of carbonate platforms such as Limalok, MIT, Takuyo-Daisan and Wōdejebato appear to have many causes. One is a sea level drop resulting in the emergence of much of the platform; this reduces the space that carbonate-forming organisms have to grow upward when sea levels again rise. A second factor is that these platforms were not true reefs but rather piles of carbonate sediment formed by organisms; these constructs cannot easily out-grow sea level rises when growing on a constrained area.[87] Two final key factors are the passage of the platforms through nutrient-rich equatorial waters which cause the overgrowth of algae that hampered the growth of reef-forming organisms, and global temperature extremes that may overheat the platforms especially when close to the equator; present-day coral bleaching events are often triggered by overheating and Limalok and the other seamounts were all approaching the equator when they drowned.[88][89] In the case of Limalok and some other guyots, paleolatitude data support the notion that approaching the equator led to the demise of the platforms.[90]
After the platform ceased growing, subsidence quickly lowered the tablemount below the
Until the Miocene, sedimentation on Limalok was probably hindered by strong currents.[95] Renewed significant sedimentation began at that point[71] after the drowning of Limalok, with sediments consisting mainly of foraminifera and other nanofossils. Some of the sediments were reworked after deposition. At least two layers formed during the Miocene (23.3–5.333 million years ago[2]) and Pliocene–Pleistocene (5.333–0.0117 million years ago[2]),[6] reaching a cumulative thickness of 100–140 metres (330–460 ft).[96][71] Chemically, most of the sediments are calcite[97] and they often occur in rudstone or wackestone form.[98] Bivalves, echinoderms, foraminifera[98] and ostracods[o] are fossilized in the sediments,[96] which sometimes contain borings and other traces of biological activity.[98]
Notes
- ^ Between ca. 145 and 66 million years ago.[2]
- ^ Between 66 and 56 million years ago.[2]
- ^ 23.3–5.333 million years ago[2]
- lava flows.[22]
- ^ Whether the Cretaceous guyots were all atolls in the present-day sense is often unclear.[28]
- ^ Pit-like depressions within carbonate rocks that are filled with water.[29]
- ^ Asbolane, birnessite and buserite are found in the crusts.[53]
- ^ Volcanic rocks that appear as fragments.[67]
- atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and temperatures dramatically increased.[77]
- algae which deposit carbonates.[79]
- Nummulites.[13]
- ^ Pebble-like growths formed by cyanobacteria.[81]
- ^ The uppermost layers of water in the sea, through which sunlight can penetrate.[91]
- ^ In stratigraphy, hardgrounds are solidified layers of sediments.[92]
- ^ Ostracod taxa include Bradleya, various cytherurids, Eucythere, Krythe and Tongacythere.[96]
References
- ^ a b Arnaud-Vanneau et al. 1995, p. 819.
- ^ a b c d e f g "International Chronostratigraphic Chart" (PDF). International Commission on Stratigraphy. August 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 September 2018. Retrieved 22 October 2018.
- ^ a b c Arnaud-Vanneau et al. 1995, p. 829.
- ^ . Retrieved 2018-07-14.
- from the original on 2018-11-20. Retrieved 2018-07-14.
- ^ a b c d e Israelson et al. 1995, p. 737.
- ^ "Ocean Drilling Program". Texas A&M University. Archived from the original on 1 July 2018. Retrieved 8 July 2018.
- from the original on 2018-11-17. Retrieved 2018-11-17.
- ^ a b c d Wyatt, Quinn & Davies 1995, p. 430.
- ^ a b c Bergersen 1995, p. 566.
- ^ Haggerty & Premoli Silva 1995, p. 935.
- U.S. Geological Survey. Archivedfrom the original on 2018-11-20. Retrieved 2018-11-20.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Arnaud-Vanneau et al. 1995, p. 830.
- ^ Castillo 2004, p. 364.
- ^ a b c Schlanger, Campbell & Jackson 2013, p. 168.
- ^ a b c Nicora, Premoli Silva & Arnaud-Vanneau 1995, p. 127.
- ^ Bergersen 1995, p. 567.
- ^ Bergersen 1995, p. 568.
- ^ Bergersen 1995, p. 570.
- ^ a b Larson et al. 1995, p. 919.
- ^ Schlanger, Campbell & Jackson 2013, p. 166.
- S2CID 140581276.
- ^ Larson et al. 1995, p. 917.
- ^ Castillo 2004, p. 365.
- S2CID 128836166.
- ^ Camoin et al. 2009, p. 39.
- ^ Pringle et al. 1993, p. 359.
- ^ a b c d e Ogg, Camoin & Arnaud-Vanneau 1995, p. 236.
- S2CID 140604929.
- ^ Pringle et al. 1993, p. 360.
- ^ Larson et al. 1995, p. 916.
- ^ Koppers et al. 2003, p. 2.
- ^ a b c d e Arnaud-Vanneau et al. 1995, p. 833.
- ^ Koppers et al. 2003, pp. 2–3.
- ^ Pringle et al. 1993, p. 368.
- ^ Pringle et al. 1993, p. 299.
- ^ Koppers et al. 2003, p. 35.
- ^ Koppers et al. 2003, p. 26.
- ^ a b Koppers et al. 2003, p. 25.
- ^ Haggerty & Premoli Silva 1995, p. 939.
- ^ a b c Koppers et al. 1995, p. 537.
- ^ Koppers et al. 2007, p. 26.
- ^ Bergersen 1995, p. 561.
- ^ Koppers et al. 1995, p. 535.
- ^ Dieu 1995, p. 513.
- ^ a b c d Ogg, Camoin & Arnaud-Vanneau 1995, p. 238.
- ^ a b c d e Haggerty & Premoli Silva 1995, p. 942.
- ^ a b c d Christie, Dieu & Gee 1995, p. 497.
- ^ Koppers et al. 1995, p. 538.
- ^ Dieu 1995, p. 514.
- ^ Christie, Dieu & Gee 1995, p. 503.
- ^ a b c Erba et al. 1995, p. 874.
- S2CID 95301027.
- ^ a b c d e Arnaud-Vanneau et al. 1995, p. 831.
- ^ a b Wyatt, Quinn & Davies 1995, p. 431.
- ^ )
- ^ Wyatt, Quinn & Davies 1995, p. 433.
- ^ Buchardt & Holmes 1995, p. 897.
- ^ a b Buchardt & Holmes 1995, p. 898.
- .
- ^ "International Chronostratigraphic Chart" (PDF). International Commission on Stratigraphy.
- ^ Koppers et al. 2007, p. 19.
- ^ Koppers et al. 2003, p. 22.
- ^ a b Bergersen 1995, p. 576.
- ^ Haggerty & Premoli Silva 1995, p. 941.
- ^ Christie, Dieu & Gee 1995, p. 496.
- ISSN 0016-7606.
- ^ Haggerty & Premoli Silva 1995, p. 943.
- ^ a b c Nicora, Premoli Silva & Arnaud-Vanneau 1995, p. 133.
- ^ a b Jenkyns & Wilson 1999, p. 362.
- ^ a b c d Ogg, Camoin & Arnaud-Vanneau 1995, p. 233.
- ^ Bergersen 1995, p. 564.
- ^ Bergersen 1995, p. 573.
- ^ a b Ogg, Camoin & Arnaud-Vanneau 1995, p. 239.
- ^ Ogg, Camoin & Arnaud-Vanneau 1995, p. 241.
- ^ Haggerty & Premoli Silva 1995, p. 946.
- ^ a b Robinson 2010, p. 51.
- ^ Robinson 2010, p. 53.
- ISBN 9789048126385
- ^ a b Nicora, Premoli Silva & Arnaud-Vanneau 1995, p. 129.
- S2CID 130100436.
- ^ Ogg, Camoin & Arnaud-Vanneau 1995, p. 237.
- ^ Jenkyns & Wilson 1999, p. 342.
- ^ Wilson et al. 1998, p. 892.
- ^ Watkins et al. 1995, p. 675.
- ^ Wilson et al. 1998, p. 890.
- ^ Ogg, Camoin & Arnaud-Vanneau 1995, p. 245.
- ^ Ogg, Camoin & Arnaud-Vanneau 1995, p. 246.
- ^ Larson et al. 1995, p. 932.
- ^ Wilson et al. 1998, pp. 892–893.
- S2CID 198155937.
- ISSN 0012-8252.
- ^ a b Erba et al. 1995, p. 873.
- ^ Watkins, Premoli Silva & Erba 1995, pp. 115–116.
- ^ Watkins et al. 1995, p. 680.
- ^ . Retrieved 2018-07-14.
- ^ Israelson et al. 1995, p. 742.
- ^ a b c Watkins, Premoli Silva & Erba 1995, p. 99.
Sources
- Arnaud-Vanneau, A.; Bergersen, D.D.; Camoin, G.F.; Ebren, P.; Haggerty, J.A.; Ogg, J.G.; Premoli Silva, I.; Vail, P.R. (December 1995). "A Model for Depositional Sequences and Systems Tracts on Small, Mid-Ocean Carbonate Platforms: Examples from Wodejebato (Sites 873–877) and Limalok (Site 871) Guyots" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. . Retrieved 2018-07-10.
- Bergersen, D.D. (December 1995). "Physiography and Architecture of Marshall Islands Guyots Drilled during Leg 144: Geophysical Constraints on Platform Development" (PDF). Northwest Pacific Atolls and Guyots: Sites 871–880 and Site 801. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. . Retrieved 2018-07-06.
- Buchardt, B.; Holmes, M.A. (December 1995). "Initial Transgressive Phase of Leg 144 Guyots: Evidence of Extreme Sulfate Reduction" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. . Retrieved 2018-07-14.
- Camoin, G.F.; Arnaud-Vanneau, A.; Bergersen, D.D.; Enos, P.; Ebren, Ph. (27 May 2009). Development and Demise of Mid-Oceanic Carbonate Platforms, Wodejebato Guyot (NW Pacific). Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. 39–67. )
- Castillo, P.R. (1 January 2004). "Geochemistry of Cretaceous volcaniclastic sediments in the Nauru and East Mariana basins provides insights into the mantle sources of giant oceanic plateaus". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 229 (1): 353–368. S2CID 129158371.
- Christie, D.M.; Dieu, J.J.; Gee, J.S. (December 1995). "Petrologic Studies of Basement Lavas from Northwest Pacific Guyots" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. . Retrieved 2018-07-14.
- Dieu, J.J. (December 1995). "Mineral Compositions in Leg 144 Lavas and Ultramafic Xenoliths: The Roles of Cumulates and Carbonatite Metasomatism in Magma Petrogenesis" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. . Retrieved 2018-07-14.
- Erba, E.; Premoli Silva, I.; Wilson, P.A.; Pringle, Malcolm S.; Sliter, W.V.; Watkins, D.K.; Arnaud-Vanneau, A.; Bralower, T.J.; Budd, A.F. (December 1995). "Synthesis of Stratigraphies from Shallow-Water Sequences at Sites 871 through 879 in the Western Pacific Ocean" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. . Retrieved 2018-07-14.
- Haggerty, J.A.; Premoli Silva, I. (December 1995). "Comparison of the Origin and Evolution of Northwest Pacific Guyots Drilled during Leg 144" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. . Retrieved 2018-07-13.
- Israelson, C.; Buchardt, B.; Haggerty, J.A.; Pearson, P.N. (December 1995). "Carbonate and Pore-Water Geochemistry of Pelagic Caps at Limalok and Lo-En Guyots, Western Pacific" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. . Retrieved 2018-07-10.
- Jenkyns, H.C.; Wilson, P.A. (1 May 1999). "Stratigraphy, paleoceanography, and evolution of Cretaceous Pacific guyots; relics from a greenhouse Earth". American Journal of Science. 299 (5): 341–392. ISSN 0002-9599.
- Koppers, A. A. P.; Staudigel, H.; Christie, D.M.; Dieu, J.J.; Pringle, M.S. (December 1995). "Sr-Nd-Pb Isotope Geochemistry of Leg 144 West Pacific Guyots: Implications for the Geochemical Evolution of the "SOPITA" Mantle Anomaly" (PDF). Northwest Pacific Atolls and Guyots: Sites 871–880 and Site 801. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. . Retrieved 2018-07-06.
- Koppers, A. A. P.; Staudigel, H.; Phipps Morgan, J.; Duncan, R.A. (June 2007). "Nonlinear Ar/Ar age systematics along the Gilbert Ridge and Tokelau Seamount Trail and the timing of the Hawaii-Emperor Bend". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 8 (6): n/a. .
- Koppers, A. A. P.; Staudigel, H.; Pringle, M.S.; Wijbrans, J.R. (October 2003). "Short-lived and discontinuous intraplate volcanism in the South Pacific: Hot spots or extensional volcanism?". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 4 (10): 1089. S2CID 131213793.
- Larson, R.L.; Erba, E.; Nakanishi, M.; Bergersen, D.D.; Lincoln, J.M. (December 1995). "Stratigraphic, Vertical Subsidence, and Paleolatitude Histories of Leg 144 Guyots" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. . Retrieved 2018-07-14.
- Nicora, A.; Premoli Silva, I.; Arnaud-Vanneau, A. (December 1995). "Paleogene Larger Foraminifer Biostratigraphy from Limalok Guyot, Site 871" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. . Retrieved 2018-07-10.
- Ogg, J.G.; Camoin, G.F.; Arnaud-Vanneau, A. (December 1995). "Limalok Guyot: Depositional History of the Carbonate Platform from Downhole Logs at Site 871 (Lagoon)" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. . Retrieved 2018-07-10.
- Pringle, Malcolm S.; Sager, William W.; Sliter, William V.; Stein, Seth (1993). Pringle, M.S.; Sager, W.W.; Sliter, W.V.; Stein, S. (eds.). The Mesozoic Pacific: Geology, Tectonics, and Volcanism: A Volume in Memory of Sy Schlanger. Geophysical Monograph Series. Vol. 77. )
- Robinson, S.A. (3 December 2010). "Shallow-water carbonate record of the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum from a Pacific Ocean guyot". Geology. 39 (1): 51–54. ISSN 0091-7613.
- Schlanger, S. O.; Campbell, J. F.; Jackson, M. W. (2013-03-18). "Post-Eocene Subsidence of the Marshall Islands Recorded by Drowned Atolls on Harrie and Sylvania Guyots". Seamounts, Islands, and Atolls. Vol. 43. American Geophysical Union. pp. 165–174. ISBN 9781118664209.
- Watkins, D.K.; Pearson, P.N.; Erba, E.; Rack, F.R.; Premoli Silva, I.; Bohrmann, H.W.; Fenner, J.; Hobbs, P.R.N. (December 1995). "Stratigraphy and Sediment Accumulation Patterns of the Upper Cenozoic Pelagic Carbonate Caps of Guyots in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. . Retrieved 2018-07-13.
- Watkins, D.K.; Premoli Silva, I.; Erba, E. (December 1995). "Cretaceous and Paleogene Manganese-Encrusted Hardgrounds from Central Pacific Guyots" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. . Retrieved 2018-07-14.
- Wilson, P.A.; Jenkyns, H.C.; Elderfield, H.; Larson, R.L. (April 1998). "The paradox of drowned carbonate platforms and the origin of Cretaceous Pacific guyots". Nature. 392 (6679): 889–894. S2CID 4423865.
- Wyatt, J.L.; Quinn, T.M.; Davies, G.R. (December 1995). "Preliminary Investigation of the Petregraphy and Geochemistry of Limestones at Limalok and Wodejebato Guyots (Sites 871 and 874), Republic of the Marshall Islands" (PDF). Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. . Retrieved 2018-07-10.