Rail transport modelling

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H0e scale
model railroad
One of the smallest (Z scale, 1:220) placed on the buffer bar of one of the larger (live steam, 1:8) model locomotives
HO scale (1:87) model of a North American center cab switcher shown with a pencil for size
Z scale (1:220) scene of a 2-6-0 steam locomotive being turned. A scratch-built Russell snow plow is parked on a stub (Val Ease Central Railroad).

Railway modelling (UK, Australia, New Zealand, and Ireland) or model railroading (US and Canada) is a hobby in which rail transport systems are modelled at a reduced scale.

The

canyons
.

The earliest model railways were the '

model railway layouts
, often recreating real locations and periods throughout history.

The world's oldest working model railway is a model designed to train

signalmen on the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway. It is located in the National Railway Museum, York, England and dates back to 1912. It remained in use until 1995. The model was built as a training exercise by apprentices of the company's Horwich Works and supplied with rolling stock by Bassett-Lowke.[2]

General description

Involvement ranges from possession of a train set to spending hours and large sums of money on a large and exacting model of a

railroad and the scenery through which it passes, called a "layout". Hobbyists, called "railway modellers" or "model railroaders", may maintain models large enough to ride (see Live steam, Ridable miniature railway and Backyard railroad
).

Modellers may collect model trains, building a landscape for the trains to pass through. They may also operate their own railroad in miniature. For some modellers, the goal of building a layout is to eventually run it as if it were a real railroad (if the layout is based on the fancy of the builder) or as the real railroad did (if the layout is based on a prototype). If modellers choose to model a prototype, they may reproduce track-by-track reproductions of the real railroad in miniature, often using prototype track diagrams and historic maps.

H0 scale is the Miniatur Wunderland in Hamburg, Germany. The largest live steam layout, with 25 miles (40 km) of track is Train Mountain in Chiloquin, Oregon, U.S.[3]
Operations form an important aspect of rail transport modelling with many layouts being dedicated to emulating the operational aspects of a working railway. These layouts can become extremely complex with multiple routes, movement patterns and timetabled operation. The British outline model railway of Banbury Connections in New South Wales, Australia, is one of the world's most complicated model railways.[4]

gauges, commonly using track gauges from 3.5 to 7.5 inches (89 to 191 mm). Models in these scales are usually hand-built and powered by live steam
, or diesel-hydraulic, and the engines are often powerful enough to haul dozens of human passengers.

A railway modelling club in Calais

The

MIT
in the 1950s pioneered automatic control of track-switching by using telephone relays.

The oldest society is 'The Model Railway Club'

Kings Cross, London, UK. As well as building model railways, it has 5,000 books and periodicals. Similarly, 'The Historical Model Railway Society'[6] at Butterley, near Ripley, Derbyshire
specialises in historical matters and has archives available to members and non-members.

Scales and gauges

Main articles:
Rail transport modelling standards
A 242A1 locomotive and standard gauge track at some model railway scales

The words scale and gauge seem at first interchangeable but their meanings are different. Scale is the model's measurement as a proportion to the original, while gauge is the measurement between the rails.

The size of engines depends on the scale and can vary from 700 mm (27.6 in) tall for the largest rideable

Nn3
, which are the same in scale as S, HO and N except with a narrower spacing between the tracks (in these examples, a scale 3 ft (914 mm) instead of the 4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) standard gauge).

The largest common scale is 1:8, with 1:4 sometimes used for park rides.

Gauge 1 and Gauge 3 are also popular for gardens. O, S, HO, and N scale are more often used indoors.[7][8]

Scale Ratio
T 1:450
ZZ 1:300
Z 1:220
N 1:160
2mm 1:152
TT 1:120
3mm 1:101
HO 1:87
OO 1:76.2
S 1:64
O 1:48
1 1:32
G 1:22.5

At first, model railways were not to scale. Aided by trade associations such as the

rail tracks
that are too large. In H0 scale, the rail heights are codes 100, 87, 83, 70, 55, 53, and 40 -- the height in thousandths of an inch from base to railhead (so code 100 is a tenth of an inch and represents 156-pound rail).

Later, modellers became dissatisfied with inaccuracies and developed standards in which everything is correctly scaled. These are used by modellers but have not spread to mass-production because the inaccuracies and overscale properties of the commercial scales ensure reliable operation and allow for shortcuts necessary for cost control. The finescale standards include the UK's P4, and the even finer S4, which uses track

dimensions scaled from the prototype. This 4 mm:1 ft modelling uses wheels 2 mm (0.079 in) or less wide running on track with a gauge of 18.83 mm (0.741 in). Check-rail
and wing-rail clearances are similarly accurate.

A compromise of P4 and OO is "EM" which uses a gauge of 18.2 mm (0.717 in) with more generous tolerances than P4 for check clearances. It gives a better appearance than OO though pointwork is not as close to reality as P4. It suits many where time and improved appearance are important. There is a small following of finescale OO which uses the same 16.5mm gauge as OO, but with the finer scale wheels and smaller clearances as used with EM- it is essentially 'EM-minus-1.7mm.'

Modules

Many groups build modules, which are sections of layouts, and can be joined together to form a larger layout, for meetings or for special occasions. For each kind of module system, there is an interface standard, so that modules made by different participants may be connected, even if they have never been connected before. Many of these module types are listed in the

Layout standards organizations
section of this article.

Couplers and connectors

Main article: Railway coupling § Model railway couplers

In addition to different scales, there are also different types of couplers for connecting cars, which are not compatible with each other.

In HO, the Americans standardized on horn-hook, or X2F couplers. Horn hook couplers have largely given way to a design known as a working knuckle coupler which was popularized by the Kadee Quality Products Co., and which has subsequently been emulated by a number of other manufactures in recent years. Working knuckle couplers are a closer approximation to the "automatic" couplers used on the prototype there and elsewhere. Also in HO, the European manufacturers have standardized, but on a coupler mount, not a coupler: many varieties of coupler can be plugged in (and out) of the NEM coupler box. None of the popular couplers has any resemblance to the prototype three-link chains generally used on the continent.

For British modellers, whose most popular scale is OO, the normal coupler is a tension-lock coupler, which, again has no pretence of replicating the usual prototype three-link chain couplers. Bachmann and more recently Hornby have begun to offer models fitted with NEM coupler pockets. This theoretically enables modellers of British railways to substitute any other NEM362 coupler, though many Bachmann models place the coupler pocket at the wrong height. A fairly common alternative is to use representations of chain couplings as found on the prototype, though these require large radius curves to be used to avoid derailments.

Other scales have similar ranges of non-compatible couplers available. In all scales couplers can be exchanged, with varying degrees of difficulty.

Landscaping

A simple H0 (1:87) scale model railroad, consisting of three interconnected modules, each 70 x 100 cm in size. It has two concentric ovals of track and a few switches to sidetracks. It makes no pretension of being a copy of "real life". Using low-cost landscaping parts, house kits and rolling stock, it was built for a total of only a few hundred dollars.
H0e scale
layout, 47 cm × 32 cm (18.5 in × 12.6 in) in size
The landscape in this N scale town includes weathered buildings and tall uncut grass.

Some modellers pay attention to landscaping their layout, creating a fantasy world or modelling an actual location, often historic. Landscaping is termed "scenery building" or "scenicking".

Constructing scenery involves preparing a sub-terrain using a wide variety of building materials, including (but not limited to) screen wire, a lattice of

plaster of Paris, hybrid paper-pulp (papier-mâché) or a lightweight foam/fiberglass/bubblewrap composite as in Geodesic Foam Scenery.[9]

The scenery base is covered with substitutes for ground cover, which may be Static Grass or scatter. Scatter or flock is a substance used in the building of dioramas and model railways to simulate the effect of grass, poppies, fireweed, track ballast and other scenic ground cover. Scatter used to simulate track ballast is usually fine-grained ground granite. Scatter which simulates coloured grass is usually tinted sawdust, wood chips or ground foam. Foam or natural lichen or commercial scatter materials can be used to simulate shrubbery. An alternative to scatter, for grass, is static grass which uses static electricity to make its simulated grass actually stand up.

Buildings and structures can be purchased as kits, or built from cardboard,

candytuft, and caspia, to which adhesive and model foliage are applied; or they can be bought ready-made from specialist manufacturers. Water can be simulated using polyester casting resin, polyurethane
, or rippled glass. Rocks can be cast in plaster or in plastic with a foam backing. Castings can be painted with stains to give colouring and shadows.

Weathering

Weathering refers to making a model look used and exposed to weather by simulating dirt and wear on real vehicles, structures and equipment. Most models come out of the box looking new, because unweathered finishes are easier to produce. Also, the wear a freight car or building undergoes depends not only on age but where it is used. Rail cars in cities accumulate grime from building and automobile exhaust and graffiti, while cars in deserts may be subjected to sandstorms which etch or strip paint. A model that is weathered would not fit as many layouts as a pristine model which can be weathered by its purchaser.

There are many weather techniques that include, but are not limited to, painting (by either drybrushing or an airbrush), sanding, breaking, and even the use of chemicals to cause corrosion. Some processes become very creative depending on the skill of the modeller. For instance several steps may be taken to create a rusting effect to ensure not only proper colouring, but also proper texture and lustre.

Weathering purchased models is common, at the least, weathering aims to reduce the plastic-like finish of scale models. The simulation of grime, rust, dirt, and wear adds realism. Some modellers simulate fuel stains on tanks, or corrosion on battery boxes. In some cases, evidence of accidents or repairs may be added, such as dents or freshly painted replacement parts, and weathered models can be nearly indistinguishable from their prototypes when photographed appropriately.

Methods of power

The sugar-cube sized electric motor in a Z scale model locomotive. The entire engine is only 50 mm (2") long.
Model of a WP Steam Locomotive (1:3 size) at Guntur, India

Static diorama models or "push along" scale models are a branch of model railways for unpowered locomotives, examples are Lone Star and Airfix models. Powered model railways are now generally operated by low voltage direct current (DC) electricity supplied via the tracks, but there are exceptions, such as Märklin and Lionel Corporation, which use alternating current (AC). Modern Digital Command Control (DCC) systems use alternating current. Other locomotives, particularly large models, can use steam. Steam and clockwork-driven engines are still sought by collectors.

Clockwork

Most early models for the toy market were powered by clockwork and controlled by levers on the locomotive. Although this made control crude the models were large and robust enough that handling the controls was practical. Various manufacturers introduced slowing and stopping tracks that could trigger levers on the locomotive and allow station stops.

Electricity

Bing electric American-type locomotive, circa 1914
Three-rail

The first miniature electric trains used a

three-rail track, with non-insulated wheels resting on the two outer rails that were in contact with the metal sleepers. The insulated central rail supplied the current to a skid under the locomotive. The outer rails ensured the return of the current. The current was alternating, supplied by the domestic network, lowered by various means (transformer or serial resistances). This kind of track made sense at the time as models were metal and conductive. Modern plastics were not available and insulation was a problem. In addition the notion of accurate models had yet to evolve and toy trains
and track were crude tinplate.

In 1938, Hornby, a manufacturer of ‘O’ scale model trains in the UK, launched a range of ‘OO’ scale electric trains (Hornby Dublo) with 1/76 scale rolling stock using 1/87 scale 16.5 mm wide track with a third centre rail. The power supply was 12 V DC and the track was equipped with an electrically insulated central rail and two non-insulated running rails. In 1959 Hornby abandoned its three-rail track in favour of a two-rail track for its ‘OO’ scale electric trains.[10]

Other systems such as Märklin instead used, since 1953,

fine metal studs
to replace the central rail, allowing existing three-rail models to use more realistic track.

A variation on the three-rail system, early introduced by Trix in 1935, used a track with three insulated rails that allowed two trains to be independently controlled on the same track. The use of a catenary made it possible for three trains to be independently controlled. The center rail ensured the common return of the current.[12] That system, known as Trix Express or Trix Twin in the UK, which first used alternative current and then direct current after 1953, was abandoned in 1997 when Märklin took over Trix. This three-rail system enabled DC and AC locomotives to run on the same track.[13]

Two-rail

When DC motors with more powerful magnets began to be used for model trains in the 1950s,[14] the two-rail track was generally preferred because at the same time accuracy became important. The two insulated rails from each other are to be used with insulated wheels on the same axle. In the direction of travel, the right-hand rail carries the positive potential and the left-hand rail the negative.[15] This system excludes certain track layouts such as the reversing loop, the reversing triangle and the diagonal in a circle without insulated sections and suitable cabling.

Overhead line

Where the model is of an

overhead lines, like the full-size locomotive. Before Digital Command Control
became available, this was one way of controlling two trains separately on the same track. The electric-outline model would be supplied by the overhead wire and the other model could be supplied by one of the running rails. The other running rail would act as a common return.

Battery

Early electric trains ran on trackside

batteries because few homes in the late 19th century and early 20th century had electricity. Today, inexpensive train sets running on batteries are again common but regarded as toys
and seldom used by hobbyists. Batteries located in the model often power garden railway and larger scale systems because of the difficulty in obtaining reliable power supply through the outdoor rails. The high-power consumption and current draw of large-scale garden models is more easily and safely met with internal rechargeable batteries. Most large-scale battery-powered models use radio control.

Live steam

Engines powered by

Gauge 1, G scale, 16 mm scale and can be found in O and OO/HO. Hornby Railways produce live steam locomotives in OO, based on designs first arrived at by an amateur modeller. Other modellers have built live steam models in HO/OO, OO9 and N, and there is one in Z in Australia.[16]

Internal combustion

Occasionally gasoline-electric models, patterned after real diesel-electric locomotives, come up among hobbyists and companies like Pilgrim Locomotive Works have sold such locomotives. Large-scale petrol-mechanical and petrol-hydraulic models are available but unusual and pricier than the electrically powered versions.

Scratch building

the Museum of the Moscow Railway

Modern

castings. Parts that need machining
, such as wheels and couplings are purchased.

Etched kits are still popular, still accompanied by low temperature castings. These kits produce models that are not covered by the major manufacturers or in scales that are not in mass production.

Laser machining techniques have extended this ability to thicker materials for scale steam and other locomotive types. Scratch builders may also make silicone rubber moulds of the parts they create, and cast them in various plastic resins (see Resin casting
), or plasters. This may be done to save duplication of effort, or to sell to others. Resin "craftsman kits" are also available for a wide range of prototypes.

Control

Coin-operated model train layout in Germany

The first clockwork (spring-drive) and live steam locomotives ran until out of power, with no way for the operator to stop and restart the locomotive or vary its speed. The advent of electric trains, which appeared commercially in the 1890s, allowed control of the speed by varying the current or voltage. As trains began to be powered by transformers and rectifiers more sophisticated throttles appeared, and soon trains powered by AC contained mechanisms to change direction or go into neutral gear when the operator cycled the power. Trains powered by DC can change direction by reversing polarity.

Electricity permits control by dividing the layout into isolated blocks, where trains can be slowed or stopped by lowering or cutting power to a block. Dividing a layout into blocks permits operators to run more than one train with less risk of a fast train catching and hitting a slow train. Blocks can also trigger signals or other accessories, adding realism or whimsy. Three-rail systems often insulate one of the common rails on a section of track, and use a passing train to complete the circuit and activate an accessory.

Many layout builders are choosing digital operation of their layouts rather than the more traditional DC design. Of the several competing systems, the command system offered by the majority of manufacturers in 2020 was a variant of Digital Command Control (DCC). The advantages of DCC are that track voltage is constant (usually in the range of 20 volts AC) and the command throttle sends a signal to small circuit cards, or decoders, hidden inside the piece of equipment which control several functions of an individual locomotive, including speed, direction of travel, lights, smoke and various sound effects. This allows more realistic operation in that the modeller can operate independently several locomotives on the same stretch of track. Several manufacturers also offer software that can provide computer-control of DCC layouts.

In large scales, particularly for garden railways, radio control and DCC in the garden have become popular.

Model railway manufacturers

  • Model railways
  • Exeter Bank: An HO-scale Australian model railway
    Exeter Bank: An HO-scale Australian model railway
  • An O-scale Australian model railway
    An O-scale Australian model railway
  • A propane-fired 1:8 scale live steam train running on the Finnish Railway Museum's 7.25-inch (18.4 cm) gauge track
    A propane-fired 1:8 scale live steam train running on the Finnish Railway Museum's 7.25-inch (18.4 cm) gauge track
  • A small 5-inch (13 cm) gauge live steam locomotive at the Wagga Wagga Society of Model Engineers' miniature railway, Willans Hill, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Australia
    A small 5-inch (13 cm) gauge live steam locomotive at the Wagga Wagga Society of Model Engineers' miniature railway, Willans Hill,
    Wagga Wagga, New South Wales
    , Australia
  • 1:8 Live Steam Malmö 1987
    1:8
    Live Steam Malmö
    1987
  • 1:8 Live Steam Malmö 1987
    1:8
    Live Steam Malmö
    1987
  • HO gauge Model Railway featuring the Sapsan train on the Moscow – Saint Petersburg Railway and Moscow to Nizhny Novgorod Railway in the Museum of the Moscow Railway, Moscow
    the Museum of the Moscow Railway
    , Moscow

Magazines

Main article:
List of railroad-related periodicals
Model train display at Chicago's Museum of Science and Industry
A model railway based on a fictional location in the United States

Layout standards organizations

Several organizations exist to set standardizations for connectibility between individual layout sections (commonly called "modules"). This is so several (or hundreds, given enough space and power) people or groups can bring together their own modules, connect them together with as little trouble as possible, and operate their trains. Despite different design and operation philosophies, different organizations have similar goals; standardized ends to facilitate connection with other modules built to the same specifications, standardized electricals, equipment, curve radii.

  • ausTRAK,[18] N Scale, two-track main with hidden third track (can be used as NTRAK's third main, as a return/continuous loop, or hidden yard/siding/on-line storage). Australian scenery and rolling stock modelled in Standard Gauge.
  • FREMO[19] a European-based organisation focusing on a single-track line, HO Scale. Also sets standards for N Scale modules. Standards are considerably more flexible in module shape than NTRAK, and has expanded over the years to accommodate several scenery variations.
  • Free-mo[20] Originally developed by the San Luis Obispo Model Railroad Club in 1995 (California), it has grown across North America and is expanding across the world. The objective of the Free-mo Standard is to provide a platform for prototype modelling in a flexible, modular environment. Free-mo modules not only provide track to operate realistic models, but also emphasize realistic, plausible scenery; realistic, reliable trackwork; and operations. Free-Mo was designed to go beyond the traditional closed-loop set-up in creating a truly universal "free-form" modular design that is operations-oriented and heavily influenced by prototype railroading. This is emphasized in the Free-mo motto, "More than Just a Standard".
  • MOROP, European Union of Model Railroad and Railroad Fans, the European standardization organisation.
  • NEM, The German modelling standards organisation.
  • NMRA
    , National Model Railroad Association, the largest organization devoted to the development, promotion, and enjoyment of the hobby of model railroading.
  • N-orma,[21] Polish N-scale (1:160) modules organization.
  • narrow gauge
    . Due to its popularity, it can be found in regional variations, most notably the imperial-to-metric measurement conversions. Tends to be used more for "unattended display" than "operation".
  • oNeTRAK,[22] operationally similar to FREMO, standardises around a single-track mainline, with modules of varying sizes and shapes. Designed with the existing NTRAK spec in mind, is fully compatible with such modules.
  • lauan plywood
    underlayment and an interface which depends on using a metal template to locate 1-inch (25 mm) pegs to mate to 1-inch holes in the adjoining module. The rails of the tracks are positioned in an exact relationship with the pegs. The rails come up to the end of the modules, so that the rails on adjacent modules do not need joiner track, but depend on the accuracy of the placement of the rails to allow trains to pass from one section to another. This style of module allows for very quick set-up, compared with module systems that use joiner tracks.
  • sTTandard,[24] Polish TT-scale (1:120) modules organization.
  • T-TRAK,[25]
    is a modular system that uses table-top modules, 2+3⁄4 inches (70 mm) high, which set on tables, that are not part of the modules, but are often found at sites which members meet. It uses a specific track interface, which has joiners which hold the modules together, which enables quick setting up and taking down.
  • Z-Bend Track,[26] uses a double-track mainline running down both sides of a module. Modules can be of any length or width in the middle and any overall shape. The "standard" called Z-Bend Track applies only to the last 5 inches (130 mm) of the module's interface to other modules, the electrical interface and the module height.
A humorous sign regarding "model railway disease"
  • In the 1990 film
    Back to the Future III
    , Doc brown builds a "crude" electrified model rail "not to scale" to demonstrate his time travel experiment to Marty in 1885.
  • In Hinterland Season 1, Episode 4 ("The Girl in the Water"), a semi-recluse who lives and works at Borth railway station maintains a model train set with custom made components; the set and certain components contribute to a death as well as provide important clues to a murder investigation. During the investigation, DCI Tom Mathias reveals that his late brother was a model train aficionado.
  • In The Sopranos, Bobby Baccalieri is a model train aficionado. He is shown wearing an engineer's cap while playing with model trains in his garage.
  • In
    Reverend W. Awdry
    .
  • In Trailer Park Boys, Season 7 Episode 4, "Friends of the Dead", heavy metal singer Sebastian Bach is a featured guest at the Bangor model train convention and is introduced as "our Competitive Model Train World Champion". He expresses a dislike of alleged rival model train competitor Patrick Swayze. Attendees at the family event are shocked by Sebastian's use of obscenities as he attempts to work the crowd in a rock concert fashion shouting, "I know, I just know, that there are some great f**king trains here in Bangor!"
  • In That '90s Show, Red Forman runs a model railway in the garage after he retired.

See also

Displays and famous layouts
Main article: List of model railways
Groups dedicated to railway modelling

References

  1. Le Monde Illustré (in French): 229-230
    . 8 October 1859.
  2. ^ Hollowood, Russell (9 April 2014). "Model students mark record for world's oldest working model railway". National Railway Museum. Retrieved 14 February 2019.
  3. ^ "TMRR". trainmountain.org. Archived from the original on 2020-09-30. Retrieved 2005-10-29.
  4. ^ "Banbury Connections".
  5. ^ "Home". themodelrailwayclub.org.
  6. ^ "HMRS: HMRS". hmrs.org.uk.
  7. ^ "MODELING IN SCALE – Dimensions, Conversion Charts, Sizes, F.A.Q.s". www.oakridgehobbies.com. Archived from the original on 2016-11-17. Retrieved 2016-11-17.
  8. ^ "Best Photos of Model Train Scales Chart - Scale Model Conversion Chart, Model Railroad Scales Comparison and Scale Model Trains / sawyoo.com". www.sawyoo.com. Retrieved 2016-11-17.
  9. ^ "Bragdon Enterprises – Geo Foam Instructions". Bragdonent.com. Retrieved 2012-05-05.
  10. ^ https://uk.hornby.com/about-hornby The History of Hornby
  11. ^ "Évolution technique du modélisme ferroviaire". November 2020. Technical evolution of model railways (page in French, retrieved 2025-05-04).
  12. ^ Explanatory diagram in the 1964 Trix catalog
  13. ^ http://www.trix.nl/bedrijf/uitgebreide-historie | History of Trix (in Dutch)
  14. ^ Jean-François Guy, L’évolution technique dans le jouet électrique. In: Bulletin d'histoire de l'électricité, n°31, juin 1998, p. 46. (French-language article on https://www.persee.fr/doc/helec_0758-7171_1998_num_31_1_1381)
  15. ^ Standards for European Model Railroads, Norm 631 https://www.morop.org/images/NEM_register/NEM_E/nem631_en_1985.pdf
  16. ^ "Ultraminiature Live Steam".
  17. ^ kres.de
  18. ^ "ausTRAK website". Archived from the original on 2006-09-08.
  19. ^ "FREMO homepage" (in German and English).
  20. ^ "Free-mo homepage".
  21. ^ "N-orma homepage".
  22. ^ "oNeTrack homepage". Archived from the original on 2006-09-08.
  23. ^ "Sipping and Switching Society of NC website".
  24. ^ "sTTandard homepage".
  25. ^ "T-TRAK website".
  26. ^ "Z-Bend Track homepage". Archived from the original on 2008-08-28.
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