Deepwater Horizon oil spill: Difference between revisions
Added year to the various dates within →Well declared "effectively dead" |
Rescuing 3 sources and tagging 0 as dead. #IABot (v1.6.1) (Balon Greyjoy) |
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| casualties = 11 killed<br/>17 injured |
| casualties = 11 killed<br/>17 injured |
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| volume = {{convert|4.9|Moilbbl|USgal m3|abbr=off|sp=us}} ±10%<ref name=report2011>{{Cite report | url = http://www.uscg.mil/foia/docs/dwh/fosc_dwh_report.pdf | title= On Scene Coordinator Report on Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill |date=September 2011 | accessdate= 22 February 2013 | format = PDF}}</ref> |
| volume = {{convert|4.9|Moilbbl|USgal m3|abbr=off|sp=us}} ±10%<ref name=report2011>{{Cite report | url = http://www.uscg.mil/foia/docs/dwh/fosc_dwh_report.pdf | title= On Scene Coordinator Report on Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill |date=September 2011 | accessdate= 22 February 2013 | format = PDF}}</ref> |
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| area = {{convert|2500|to|68000|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}}<ref name="area of spill">{{cite press release | title=BP / Gulf Oil Spill – 68,000 Square Miles of Direct Impact | publisher=SkyTruth.org | date=27 July 2010 | url |
| area = {{convert|2500|to|68000|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}}<ref name="area of spill">{{cite press release | title=BP / Gulf Oil Spill – 68,000 Square Miles of Direct Impact | publisher=SkyTruth.org | date=27 July 2010 | url=http://blog.skytruth.org/2010/07/bp-gulf-oil-spill-68000-square-miles-of.html | accessdate=13 May 2010 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100811031036/http://blog.skytruth.org/2010/07/bp-gulf-oil-spill-68000-square-miles-of.html | archivedate=11 August 2010 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> |
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{{Deepwater Horizon oil spill series}} |
{{Deepwater Horizon oil spill series}} |
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Initially BP downplayed the incident; its CEO [[Tony Hayward]] called the amount of oil and dispersant "relatively tiny" in comparison with the "very big ocean."<ref name="AutoBB-288"/> Later, he drew an outpouring of criticism when he said that the spill was a disruption to Gulf Coast residents and himself adding, "You know, I'd like my life back."<ref name="AutoBB-289"/> BP's chief operating officer [[Doug Suttles]] contradicted the underwater plume discussion noting, "It may be down to how you define what a plume is here… The oil that has been found is in very minute quantities."<ref name="AutoBB-290"/> In June, BP launched a PR campaign and successfully bid for several search terms related to the spill on Google and other search engines so that the first sponsored search result linked directly to the company's website.<ref name="AutoBB-291"/><ref name="AutoBB-292"/> On 26 July 2010, it was announced that CEO Tony Hayward was to resign and would be replaced by [[Bob Dudley]], who is an American citizen and previously worked for Amoco.<ref name="AutoBB-293"/><ref name="AutoBB-294"/> |
Initially BP downplayed the incident; its CEO [[Tony Hayward]] called the amount of oil and dispersant "relatively tiny" in comparison with the "very big ocean."<ref name="AutoBB-288"/> Later, he drew an outpouring of criticism when he said that the spill was a disruption to Gulf Coast residents and himself adding, "You know, I'd like my life back."<ref name="AutoBB-289"/> BP's chief operating officer [[Doug Suttles]] contradicted the underwater plume discussion noting, "It may be down to how you define what a plume is here… The oil that has been found is in very minute quantities."<ref name="AutoBB-290"/> In June, BP launched a PR campaign and successfully bid for several search terms related to the spill on Google and other search engines so that the first sponsored search result linked directly to the company's website.<ref name="AutoBB-291"/><ref name="AutoBB-292"/> On 26 July 2010, it was announced that CEO Tony Hayward was to resign and would be replaced by [[Bob Dudley]], who is an American citizen and previously worked for Amoco.<ref name="AutoBB-293"/><ref name="AutoBB-294"/> |
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Hayward's involvement in Deepwater Horizon has left him a highly controversial public figure. In May 2013, he was honored as a "distinguished leader" by the University of Birmingham, but his award ceremony was stopped on multiple occasions by jeers and walk-outs and the focus of a protest from [[People & Planet]] members.<ref>{{cite web|last=Wragg|first=Tom|url=http://brightgreenscotland.org/index.php/2013/03/why-we-disrupted-tony-haywood-at-the-university-of-birmingham/|title=Why we disrupted Tony Hayward’s award at the University of Birmingham|publisher=Bright Green|date=21 March 2013|accessdate=21 March 2013}}</ref> |
Hayward's involvement in Deepwater Horizon has left him a highly controversial public figure. In May 2013, he was honored as a "distinguished leader" by the University of Birmingham, but his award ceremony was stopped on multiple occasions by jeers and walk-outs and the focus of a protest from [[People & Planet]] members.<ref>{{cite web|last=Wragg|first=Tom|url=http://brightgreenscotland.org/index.php/2013/03/why-we-disrupted-tony-haywood-at-the-university-of-birmingham/|title=Why we disrupted Tony Hayward’s award at the University of Birmingham|publisher=Bright Green|date=21 March 2013|accessdate=21 March 2013|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329001725/http://brightgreenscotland.org/index.php/2013/03/why-we-disrupted-tony-haywood-at-the-university-of-birmingham/|archivedate=29 March 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> |
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In July 2013, Hayward was awarded an honorary degree from [[Robert Gordon University]]. This was described as "a very serious error of judgement" by Friends of the Earth Scotland, and "a sick joke" by the university's Student President.<ref>{{cite news|last=Cheyne|first=James|title=University defends degree for Deepwater Horizon boss Tony Hayward|url=http://news.stv.tv/scotland/232676-robert-gordon-university-gives-degree-to-former-bp-boss-tony-hayward/|publisher=STV|date=12 July 2013}}</ref> |
In July 2013, Hayward was awarded an honorary degree from [[Robert Gordon University]]. This was described as "a very serious error of judgement" by Friends of the Earth Scotland, and "a sick joke" by the university's Student President.<ref>{{cite news|last=Cheyne|first=James|title=University defends degree for Deepwater Horizon boss Tony Hayward|url=http://news.stv.tv/scotland/232676-robert-gordon-university-gives-degree-to-former-bp-boss-tony-hayward/|publisher=STV|date=12 July 2013}}</ref> |
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<ref name="AutoBB-281">{{cite web|url=http://www.neworleans.com/news/local-news/404880.html |title=More than a thousand people attend rally against BP and the government |publisher=[[WGNO]] TV, New Orleans |date=30 May 2010 |accessdate=3 July 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706120409/http://www.neworleans.com/news/local-news/404880.html |archivedate=6 July 2010 }}</ref> |
<ref name="AutoBB-281">{{cite web|url=http://www.neworleans.com/news/local-news/404880.html |title=More than a thousand people attend rally against BP and the government |publisher=[[WGNO]] TV, New Orleans |date=30 May 2010 |accessdate=3 July 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706120409/http://www.neworleans.com/news/local-news/404880.html |archivedate=6 July 2010 }}</ref> |
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<ref name="AutoBB-282">{{Cite news |last=Weber |first=Harry |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=29 June 2010 |url=http://www.canadianbusiness.com/markets/market_news/article.jsp?content=D9GL7E600 |title=APNewsBreak: Trade group says BP to give cash to gas stations due to lost sales from boycotts |publisher=[[Canadian Business]] |archiveurl= |
<ref name="AutoBB-282">{{Cite news |last=Weber |first=Harry |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=29 June 2010 |url=http://www.canadianbusiness.com/markets/market_news/article.jsp?content=D9GL7E600 |title=APNewsBreak: Trade group says BP to give cash to gas stations due to lost sales from boycotts |publisher=[[Canadian Business]] |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.canadianbusiness.com%2Fshared%2Fprint.jsp%3Fcontent%3DD9GL7E600%26adZone%3Dmarkets%2Fmarket_news%26pubZones%3D%2Fcontent%2FMARKETS%2FMARKETS_SHARED_HEADER_SPONSOR_AD_HTML.jsp%7C%2Fcontent%2FMARKETS%2FMARKETS_SHARED_SIDE_AD_HTML.jsp&date=2010-07-11 |archivedate=11 July 2010 |accessdate=10 July 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> |
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<ref name="AutoBB-283">{{cite press release |last=Palomo|first=J. |title=API response to commission report: "We've made progress to improve safety" |url= http://www.api.org/news-and-media/news/newsitems/2011/jan-2011/api-response-to-commission-report.aspx |accessdate=13 February 2011|publisher = [[American Petroleum Institute]]}}</ref> |
<ref name="AutoBB-283">{{cite press release |last=Palomo|first=J. |title=API response to commission report: "We've made progress to improve safety" |url= http://www.api.org/news-and-media/news/newsitems/2011/jan-2011/api-response-to-commission-report.aspx |accessdate=13 February 2011|publisher = [[American Petroleum Institute]]}}</ref> |
Revision as of 21:39, 20 November 2017
Deepwater Horizon oil spill | |
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Location | Gulf of Mexico near Mississippi River Delta, United States |
Coordinates | 28°44′17.30″N 88°21′57.40″W / 28.7381389°N 88.3659444°W[1] |
Date | April 20 – September 19, 2010 (4 months, 4 weeks and 2 days) |
Cause | |
Cause | Wellhead blowout |
Casualties | 11 killed 17 injured |
Operator | Transocean under contract for BP[2] |
Spill characteristics | |
Volume | 4.9 million barrels (210,000,000 U.S. gallons; 780,000 cubic meters) ±10%[3] |
Area | 2,500 to 68,000 sq mi (6,500 to 176,100 km2)[4] |
This article is part of a series about the |
Deepwater Horizon oil spill |
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External videos | |
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Frontline: The Spill (54:25), |
The Deepwater Horizon oil spill (also referred to as the BP oil spill, the BP oil disaster, the Gulf of Mexico oil spill, and the Macondo blowout) is an industrial disaster that began on April 20, 2010, in the Gulf of Mexico on the BP-operated Macondo Prospect. Killing eleven people,[6][7][8][9] it is considered the largest marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry and estimated to be 8% to 31% larger in volume than the previous largest, the Ixtoc I oil spill. The US Government estimated the total discharge at 4.9 million barrels (210 million US gal; 780,000 m3).[3] After several failed efforts to contain the flow, the well was declared sealed on September 19, 2010.[10] Reports in early 2012 indicated that the well site was still leaking.[11][12]
A massive response ensued to protect beaches, wetlands and estuaries from the spreading oil utilizing skimmer ships, floating booms, controlled burns and 1.84 million US gallons (7,000 m3) of oil dispersant.[13] Due to the months-long spill, along with adverse effects from the response and cleanup activities, extensive damage to marine and wildlife habitats and fishing and tourism industries was reported.[14][15] In Louisiana, 4,900,000 pounds (2,200 t) of oily material was removed from the beaches in 2013, over double the amount collected in 2012. Oil cleanup crews worked four days a week on 55 miles (89 km) of Louisiana shoreline throughout 2013.[16] Oil continued to be found as far from the Macondo site as the waters off the Florida Panhandle and Tampa Bay, where scientists said the oil and dispersant mixture is embedded in the sand.[17] In 2013 it was reported that dolphins and other marine life continued to die in record numbers with infant dolphins dying at six times the normal rate.[18] One study released in 2014 reported that tuna and amberjack that were exposed to oil from the spill developed deformities of the heart and other organs that would be expected to be fatal or at least life-shortening and another study found that cardiotoxicity might have been widespread in animal life exposed to the spill.[19][20]
Numerous investigations explored the causes of the explosion and record-setting spill. The U.S. government September 2011 report pointed to defective cement on the well, faulting mostly BP, but also rig operator Transocean and contractor Halliburton.[21][22] Earlier in 2011, a White House commission likewise blamed BP and its partners for a series of cost-cutting decisions and an inadequate safety system, but also concluded that the spill resulted from "systemic" root causes and "absent significant reform in both industry practices and government policies, might well recur".[23]
In November 2012, BP and the
In September 2014, a U.S. District Court judge ruled that BP was primarily responsible for the oil spill because of its gross negligence and reckless conduct.[28]
In July 2015, BP agreed to pay $18.7 billion in fines, the largest corporate settlement in U.S. history.[29]
Background
Deepwater Horizon drilling rig
The
Explosion
At approximately 9:45 pm
Volume and extent of oil spill
The oil leak was discovered on the afternoon of 22 April 2010 when a large oil slick began to spread at the former rig site.[42] The oil flowed for 87 days. BP originally estimated a flow rate of 1,000 to 5,000 barrels per day (160 to 790 m3/d). The Flow Rate Technical Group (FRTG) estimated the initial flow rate was 62,000 barrels per day (9,900 m3/d).[43][44][45] The total estimated volume of leaked oil approximated 4.9 million barrels (210 million US gal; 780,000 m3) with plus or minus 10% uncertainty,[3] including oil that was collected,[46] making it the world’s largest accidental spill.[6][47] BP challenged the higher figure, saying that the government overestimated the volume. Internal emails released in 2013 showed that one BP employee had estimates that matched those of the FRTG, and shared the data with supervisors, but BP continued with their lower number.[48][49] The company argued that government figures do not reflect over 810,000 barrels (34 million US gal; 129,000 m3) of oil that was collected or burned before it could enter the Gulf waters.[46]
According to the satellite images, the spill directly impacted 68,000 square miles (180,000 km2) of ocean, which is comparable to the size of
Concerns were raised about the appearance of underwater, horizontally extended plumes of dissolved oil. Researchers concluded that deep plumes of dissolved oil and gas would likely remain confined to the northern Gulf of Mexico and that the peak impact on dissolved oxygen would be delayed and long lasting.[61] Two weeks after the wellhead was capped on 15 July 2010, the surface oil appeared to have dissipated, while an unknown amount of subsurface oil remained.[62] Estimates of the residual ranged from a 2010 NOAA report that claimed about half of the oil remained below the surface to independent estimates of up to 75%.[63][64][65] That means that over 100 million US gallons (380 Ml) (2.4 million barrels) remained in the Gulf.[60] As of January 2011, tar balls, oil sheen trails, fouled wetlands marsh grass and coastal sands were still evident. Subsurface oil remained offshore and in fine silts.[66] In April 2012, oil was still found along as much as 200 miles (320 km) of Louisiana coastline and tar balls continued to wash up on the barrier islands.[67] In 2013, some scientists at the Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill and Ecosystem Science Conference said that as much as one-third of the oil may have mixed with deep ocean sediments, where it risks damage to ecosystems and commercial fisheries.[68]
In 2013, more than 4,600,000 pounds (2,100 t) of "oiled material" was removed from the Louisiana coast.[16][69] Although only "minute" quantities of oil continued to wash up in 2013, patches of tar balls were still being reported almost every day from Alabama and Florida Panhandle beaches. Regular cleanup patrols were no longer considered justified but cleanup was being conducted on an as-needed basis, in response to public reports.[70]
It was first thought that oil had not reached as far as
Efforts to stem the flow of oil
Short-term efforts
First BP unsuccessfully attempted to close the
BP then inserted a riser insertion tube into the pipe and a stopper-like washer around the tube plugged at the end of the riser and diverted the flow into the insertion tube.[77] The collected gas was flared and oil stored on board the drillship Discoverer Enterprise.[78] Before the tube was removed, it collected 924,000 US gallons (22,000 bbl; 3,500 m3) of oil.[79] On 3 June 2010, BP removed the damaged drilling riser from the top of the blowout preventer and covered the pipe by the cap which connected it to another riser.[80] On 16 June a second containment system connected directly to the blowout preventer began carrying oil and gas to service vessels, where it was consumed in a clean-burning system.[81] The United States government's estimates suggested the cap and other equipment were capturing less than half of the leaking oil.[53] On 10 July the containment cap was removed to replace it with a better-fitting cap ("Top Hat Number 10").[82][83] Mud and cement were later pumped in through the top of the well to reduce the pressure inside it which didn't work either. A final device was created to attach a chamber of larger diameter than the flowing pipe with a flange that bolted to the top of the blowout preventer and a manual valve set to close off the flow once attached. On July 15 the device was secured and time was taken closing the valves to ensure the attachment under increasing pressure until the valves were closed completing the temporary measures.[84]
Considerations of using explosives
In mid-May, United States Secretary of Energy
Well declared "effectively dead"
Transocean's Development Driller III started drilling a first relief well on May 2, 2010. GSF Development Driller II started drilling a second relief on May 16, 2010.[89][90][91] On August3, 2010, first test oil and then drilling mud was pumped at a slow rate of approximately 2 barrels (320 L) per minute into the well-head. Pumping continued for eight hours, at the end of which time the well was declared to be "in a static condition."[92] On August 4, 2010, BP began pumping cement from the top, sealing that part of the flow channel permanently.[93]
On September 3, 2010, the 300-
Recurrent or continued leakage
In May 2010, BP admitted they had "discovered things that were broken in the sub-surface" during the "top kill" effort.[97]
Oil slicks were reported in March[98] and August 2011,[99][100] in March[11] and October 2012,[101][102][103] and in January 2013.[104] Repeated scientific analyses confirmed that the sheen was a chemical match for oil from Macondo well.[105][106]
The USCG initially said the oil was too dispersed to recover and posed no threat to the coastline,[107] but later warned BP and Transocean that they might be held financially responsible for cleaning up the new oil.[108] USGS director Marcia McNutt stated that the riser pipe could hold at most 1,000 barrels (160 m3) because it is open on both ends, making it unlikely to hold the amount of oil being observed.[109]
In October 2012, BP reported that they had found and plugged leaking oil from the failed containment dome, now abandoned about 1,500 feet (460 m) from the main well.[110][111][112] In December 2012, the USCG conducted a subsea survey; no oil coming from the wells or the wreckage was found and its source remains unknown.[60][113] In addition, white, milky substance was observed seeping from the wreckage. According to BP and the USCG, it is "not oil and it's not harmful."[114]
In January 2013, BP said that they were continuing to investigate possible sources of the oil sheen. Chemical data implied that the substance might be residual oil leaking from the wreckage. If that proves to be the case, the sheen can be expected to eventually disappear. Another possibility is that it is formation oil escaping from the subsurface, using the Macondo well casing as flow conduit, possibly intersecting a naturally occurring fault, and then following that to escape at the surface some distance from the wellhead. If it proves to be oil from the subsurface, then that could indicate the possibility of an indefinite release of oil. The oil slick was comparable in size to
Containment, collection and use of dispersants
The fundamental strategies for addressing the spill were containment, dispersal and removal. In summer 2010, approximately 47,000 people and 7,000 vessels were involved in the project. By 3 October 2012, federal response costs amounted to $850 million, mostly reimbursed by BP. As of January 2013, 935 personnel were still involved. By that time cleanup had cost BP over $14 billion.[60]
It was estimated with plus-or-minus 10% uncertainty that 4.9 million barrels (780,000 m3) of oil was released from the well; 4.1 million barrels (650,000 m3) of oil went into the Gulf.[116] The report led by the Department of the Interior and the NOAA said that "75% [of oil] has been cleaned up by Man or Mother Nature"; however, only about 25% of released oil was collected or removed while about 75% of oil remained in the environment in one form or another.[117] In 2012, Markus Huettel, a benthic ecologist at Florida State University, maintained that while much of BP's oil was degraded or evaporated, at least 60% remains unaccounted for.[118]
In May 2010, a local native set up a network for members of the community and more to volunteer to help assist in both the clean up of the beaches as well as captains offering the use of there boats to help clean up and prevent the spread of the oil. In order for captains to help in the clean up of the oil spill, they had to register their ships with the Vessels of Opportunity. Unfortunately with this program there were over 7,200 boats registered, but only a third of the boats actually participated in the clean up effort. To most local supporters to the clean up effort were disappointed with how slow the response was by BP, which caused the formation of The Florida Key Environmental Coalition. The Florida Key Environmental Coalition gained some significant influence in the clean up of the oil spill to try and gain some control over the situation. [119]
Containment
Containment booms stretching over 4,200,000 feet (1,300 km) were deployed, either to corral the oil or as barriers to protect marshes, mangroves, shrimp/crab/oyster ranches or other ecologically sensitive areas. Booms extend 18–48 inches (0.46–1.22 m) above and below the water surface and were effective only in relatively calm and slow-moving waters. Including one-time use sorbent booms, a total of 13,300,000 feet (4,100 km) of booms were deployed.[120] Booms were criticized for washing up on the shore with the oil, allowing oil to escape above or below the boom, and for ineffectiveness in more than three to four-foot (90–120 cm) waves.[121][122][123]
The
Use of Corexit dispersant
The spill was also notable for the volume of
A 2011 analysis conducted by Earthjustice and Toxipedia showed that the dispersant could contain cancer-causing agents, hazardous toxins and endocrine-disrupting chemicals.[132] Environmental scientists expressed concerns that the dispersants add to the toxicity of a spill, increasing the threat to sea turtles and bluefin tuna. The dangers are even greater when poured into the source of a spill, because they are picked up by the current and wash through the Gulf.[133] According to BP and federal officials, dispersant use stopped after the cap was in place;[134][135] however, marine toxicologist Riki Ott wrote in an open letter to the EPA that Corexit use continued after that date[136] and a GAP investigation stated that "[a] majority of GAP witnesses cited indications that Corexit was used after [July 2010]."[137]
According to a NALCO manual obtained by GAP, Corexit 9527 is an “eye and skin irritant. Repeated or excessive exposure ... may cause injury to red blood cells (hemolysis), kidney or the liver.” The manual adds: “Excessive exposure may cause central nervous system effects, nausea, vomiting, anesthetic or narcotic effects.” It advises, “Do not get in eyes, on skin, on clothing,” and “Wear suitable protective clothing.” For Corexit 9500 the manual advised, “Do not get in eyes, on skin, on clothing,” “Avoid breathing vapor,” and “Wear suitable protective clothing.” According to FOIA requests obtained by GAP, neither the protective gear nor the manual were distributed to Gulf oil spill cleanup workers.
Corexit EC9500A and Corexit EC9527A were the principal variants.[138] The two formulations are neither the least toxic, nor the most effective, among EPA's approved dispersants, but BP said it chose to use Corexit because it was available the week of the rig explosion.[139][140] On 19 May, the EPA gave BP 24 hours to choose less toxic alternatives to Corexit from the National Contingency Plan Product Schedule, and begin applying them within 72 hours of EPA approval or provide a detailed reasoning why no approved products met the standards.[141][142] On 20 May, BP determined that none of the alternative products met all three criteria of availability, non-toxicity and effectiveness.[143] On 24 May, EPA Administrator Lisa P. Jackson ordered EPA to conduct its own evaluation of alternatives and ordered BP to reduce dispersant use by 75%.[144][145][146] BP reduced Corexit use by 25,689 to 23,250 US gallons (97,240 to 88,010 L) per day, a 9% decline.[147] On 2 August 2010, the EPA said dispersants did no more harm to the environment than the oil and that they stopped a large amount of oil from reaching the coast by breaking it down faster.[134] However, some independent scientists and EPA's own experts continue to voice concerns about the approach.[148]
Underwater injection of Corexit into the leak may have created the oil plumes which were discovered below the surface.[140] Because the dispersants were applied at depth, much of the oil never rose to the surface.[149] One plume was 22 miles (35 km) long, more than 1 mile (1,600 m) wide and 650 feet (200 m) deep.[150] In a major study on the plume, experts were most concerned about the slow pace at which the oil was breaking down in the cold, 40 °F (4 °C) water at depths of 3,000 feet (900 m).[151]
In late 2012, a study from
Removal
The three basic approaches for removing the oil from the water were: combustion, offshore filtration, and collection for later processing. USCG said 33 million US gallons (120,000 m3) of tainted water was recovered, including 5 million US gallons (19,000 m3) of oil. BP said 826,800 barrels (131,450 m3) had been recovered or flared.[155] It is calculated that about 5% of leaked oil was burned at the surface and 3% was skimmed.[117] On the most demanding day 47,849 people were assigned on the response works.[3]
From April to mid-July 2010, 411 controlled in-situ fires remediated approximately 265,000 barrels (11.1 million US gal; 42,100 m3).
Oil was collected from water by using
After the well was captured, the cleanup of shore became the main task of the response works. Two main types of affected coast were sandy beaches and marshes. On beaches the main techniques were sifting sand, removing tar balls, and digging out tar mats manually or by using mechanical devices.[3] For marshes, techniques such as vacuum and pumping, low-pressure flush, vegetation cutting, and bioremediation were used.[120]
Oil-eating microbes
Dispersants are said to facilitate the digestion of the oil by microbes. Mixing dispersants with oil at the wellhead would keep some oil below the surface and in theory, allowing
Several studies suggest that microbes successfully consumed part of the oil.
Access restrictions
On May 18, 2010, BP was designated the lead "Responsible Party" under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, which meant that BP had operational authority in coordinating the response.[170][171]
The first video images were released on May 12, and further video images were released by members of Congress who had been given access to them by BP.[172]
During the spill response operations, at the request of the Coast Guard, the
Local and federal authorities citing BP's authority denied access to members of the press attempting to document the spill from the air, from boats, and on the ground, blocking access to areas that were open to the public.[172][177][178][179][180][181][182] In some cases photographers were granted access only with BP officials escorting them on BP-contracted boats and aircraft. In one example, the U.S. Coast Guard stopped Jean-Michel Cousteau's boat and allowed it to proceed only after the Coast Guard was assured that no journalists were on board.[179] In another example, a CBS News crew was denied access to the oil-covered beaches of the spill area. The CBS crew was told by the authorities: "this is BP's rules, not ours," when trying to film the area.[179][183][184] Some members of Congress criticized the restrictions placed on access by journalists.[172]
The FAA denied that BP employees or contractors made decisions on flights and access, saying those decisions were made by the FAA and Coast Guard.[172][175] The FAA acknowledged that media access was limited to hired planes or helicopters, but was arranged through the Coast Guard.[176] The Coast Guard and BP denied having a policy of restricting journalists; they noted that members of the media had been embedded with the authorities and allowed to cover response efforts since the beginning of the effort, with more than 400 embeds aboard boats and aircraft to date.[181] They also said that they wanted to provide access to the information while maintaining safety.[181]
Cleanup
On April 15, 2014, BP claimed that cleanup along the coast was substantially complete, but the United States Coast Guard responded by stating that a lot of work remained. Using physical barriers such as floating booms, cleanup workers’ objective was to keep the oil from spreading any further. They used skimmer boats to remove a majority of the oil and they used sorbents to absorb any remnant of oil like a sponge. Although that method did not remove the oil completely, chemicals called dispersants are used to hasten the oil’s degradation to prevent the oil from doing further damage to the marine habitats below the surface water. For the Deep Horizon oil spill, cleanup workers used 1,400,000 US gallons (5,300,000 L; 1,200,000 imp gal) of various chemical dispersants to further breakdown the oil.[185]
The State of Louisiana was funded by BP to do regular testing of fish, shellfish, water, and sand. Initial testing regularly showed detectable levels of dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate, a chemical used in the clean up. Testing over the past year reported by GulfSource.org, for the pollutants tested have not produced results.[186]
Consequences
Environmental impact
The spill area hosts 8,332 species, including more than 1,270 fish, 604
A 2014 study of the effects of the oil spill on
The oil dispersant
In July 2010 it was reported that the spill was "already having a 'devastating' effect on marine life in the Gulf".
In the first birthing season for dolphins after the spill, dead baby dolphins washed up along Mississippi and Alabama shorelines at about 10 times the normal number.
In 2012, tar balls continued to wash up along the Gulf coast[218][219][220][221] and in 2013, tar balls could still be found in on the Mississippi and Louisiana coasts, along with oil sheens in marshes and signs of severe erosion of coastal islands, brought about by the death of trees and marsh grass from exposure to the oil.[222] In 2013, former NASA physicist Bonny Schumaker noted a "dearth of marine life" in a radius 30 to 50 miles (48 to 80 km) around the well, after flying over the area numerous times since May 2010.[223][224]
In 2013, researchers found that oil on the bottom of the seafloor did not seem to be degrading,[225] and observed a phenomenon called a "dirty blizzard": oil in the water column began clumping around suspended sediments, and falling to the ocean floor in an "underwater rain of oily particles." The result could have long-term effects because oil could remain in the food chain for generations.[226]
A 2014 bluefin tuna study in Science found that oil already broken down by wave action and chemical dispersants was more toxic than fresh oil.[227] A 2015 study of the relative toxicity of oil and dispersants to coral also found that the dispersants were more toxic than the oil.[228]
A 2015 study by the
On April 12, 2016, a research team reported that 88 percent of about 360 baby or stillborn dolphins within the spill area "had abnormal or under-developed lungs", compared to 15 percent in other areas. The study was published in the April 2016 Diseases of Aquatic Organisms.[231]
Health consequences
By June 2010, 143 spill-exposure cases had been reported to the
The United States
Mike Robicheux, a Louisiana physician, described the situation as "the biggest public health crisis from a chemical poisoning in the history of this country."[236] In July, after testing the blood of BP cleanup workers and residents in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida for volatile organic compounds, environmental scientist Wilma Subra said she was "finding amounts 5 to 10 times in excess of the 95th percentile"; she said that "the presence of these chemicals in the blood indicates exposure."[235][237][238] Riki Ott, a marine toxicologist with experience of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, advised families to evacuate the Gulf.[239] She said that workers from the Valdez spill had suffered long-term health consequences.[240]
Following the May 26, 2010 hospitalization of seven fishermen that were working in the cleanup crew, BP requested that the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health perform a Health Hazard Evaluation. This was to cover all offshore cleanup activities, BP later requested a second NIOSH investigation of onshore cleanup operations. Tests for chemical exposure in the seven fishermen were negative; NIOSH concluded that the hospitalizations were most likely a result of heat, fatigue, and terpenes that were being used to clean the decks. Review of 10 later hospitalizations found that heat exposure and dehydration were consistent findings but could not establish chemical exposure. NIOSH personnel performed air monitoring around cleanup workers at sea, on land, and during the application of Corexit. Air concentrations of volatile organic compounds and PAHs never exceeded permissible exposure levels. A limitation of their methodology was that some VOCs may have already evaporated from the oil before they began their investigation. In their report, they suggest the possibility that respiratory symptoms might have been caused by high levels of ozone or reactive aldehydes in the air, possibly produced from photochemical reactions in the oil. NIOSH did note that many of the personnel involved were not donning personal protective equipment (gloves and impermeable coveralls) as they had been instructed to and emphasized that this was important protection against transdermal absorption of chemicals from the oil. Heat stress was found to be the most pressing safety concern.[241]
Workers reported that they were not allowed to use respirators, and that their jobs were threatened if they did.[242][243][244] OSHA said "cleanup workers are receiving "minimal" exposure to airborne toxins...OSHA will require that BP provide certain protective clothing, but not respirators."[245] ProPublica reported that workers were being photographed while working with no protective clothing.[246] An independent investigation for Newsweek showed that BP did not hand out the legally required safety manual for use with Corexit, and were not provided with safety training or protective gear.[247]
A 2012 survey of the health effects of the spill on cleanup workers reported "eye, nose and throat irritation; respiratory problems; blood in urine, vomit and rectal bleeding; seizures; nausea and violent vomiting episodes that last for hours; skin irritation, burning and lesions; short-term memory loss and confusion; liver and kidney damage; central nervous system effects and nervous system damage; hypertension; and miscarriages". Dr. James Diaz, writing for the American Journal of Disaster Medicine, said these ailments appearing in the Gulf reflected those reported after previous oil spills, like the Exxon Valdez. Diaz warned that "chronic adverse health effects, including cancers, liver and kidney disease, mental health disorders, birth defects and developmental disorders should be anticipated among sensitive populations and those most heavily exposed". Diaz also believes neurological disorders should be expected.[248]
Two years after the spill, a study initiated by the
A study that investigated the health effects among children in Louisiana and Florida living less than 10 miles from the coast found that more than a third of the parents reported physical or mental health symptoms among their children. The parents reported "unexplained symptoms among their children, including bleeding ears, nose bleeds, and the early start of menstruation among girls," according to David Abramson, director of Columbia University's National Center for Disaster Preparedness.[251]
A cohort study of almost 2200 Louisiana women found "high physical/environmental exposure was significantly associated with all 13 of the physical health symptoms surveyed, with the strongest associations for burning in nose, throat or lungs ; sore throat; dizziness and wheezing. Women who suffered a high degree of economic disruption as a result of spill were significantly more likely to report wheezing; headaches; watery, burning, itchy eyes and stuffy, itchy, runny nose.[253]
Economy
The spill had a strong economic impact to BP
Local officials in Louisiana expressed concern that the offshore drilling moratorium imposed in response to the spill would further harm the economies of coastal communities as the oil industry directly or indirectly employs about 318,000 Louisiana residents (17% of all jobs in the state).[263] NOAA had closed 86,985 square miles (225,290 km2), or approximately 36% of Federal waters in the Gulf of Mexico, for commercial fishing causing $2.5 billion cost for the fishing industry.[264][265][266] The U.S. Travel Association estimated that the economic impact of the oil spill on tourism across the Gulf Coast over a three-year period could exceed approximately $23 billion, in a region that supports over 400,000 travel industry jobs generating $34 billion in revenue annually.[267][268]
Offshore drilling policies
On 30 April 2010 President Barack Obama ordered the federal government to hold the issuing of new offshore drilling leases and authorized investigation of 29 oil rigs in the Gulf in an effort to determine the cause of the disaster.[269][270] Later a six-month offshore drilling (below 500 feet (150 m) of water) moratorium was enforced by the United States Department of the Interior.[271] The moratorium suspended work on 33 rigs,[271] and a group of affected companies formed the Back to Work Coalition.[272] On 22 June, a United States federal judge on the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana Martin Leach-Cross Feldman when ruling in the case Hornbeck Offshore Services LLC v. Salazar, lifted the moratorium finding it too broad, arbitrary and not adequately justified.[271] The ban was lifted in October 2010.
On 28 April 2010, the
In October 2011, the United States Department of the Interior's Minerals Management Service was dissolved after it was determined it had exercised poor oversight over the drilling industry. Three new agencies replaced it, separating the regulation, leasing, and revenue collection responsibilities respectively, among the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement, the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, and Office of Natural Resources Revenue.
In March 2014, BP was again allowed to bid for oil and gas leases.[278]
Reactions
U.S. reactions
On 30 April President Obama dispatched the Secretaries of the
Public opinion polls in the U.S. were generally critical of the way President Obama and the federal government handled the disaster and they were extremely critical of BPs response. Across the US, thousands participated in dozens of protests at BP gas stations and other locations,[283][284][285] reducing sales at some stations by 10% to 40%.[286]
Industry claimed that disasters are infrequent and that this spill was an isolated incident and rejected claims of a loss of industry credibility.[287] The American Petroleum Institute (API) stated that the offshore drilling industry is important to job creation and economic growth.[287][288] CEOs from the top five oil companies all agreed to work harder at improving safety. API announced the creation of an offshore safety institute, separate from API's lobbying operation.[289]
The Organization for International Investment, a Washington D.C.-based advocate for overseas investment in the United States, warned that the heated rhetoric was potentially damaging the reputation of British companies with operations in the United States and could spark a wave of U.S. protectionism that would restrict British firms from government contracts, political donations and lobbying.[290][291]
UK reactions
In the UK, there was anger at the American press and news outlets for the misuse of the term "British Petroleum" for the company – a name which has not been used since British Petroleum merged with the American company Amoco in 1998 to form BP. It was said that the U.S. was 'dumping' the blame onto the British people and there were calls for British Prime Minister David Cameron to protect British interests in the United States. British pension fund managers (who have large holdings of BP shares and rely upon its dividends) accepted that while BP had to pay compensation for the spill and the environmental damage, they argued that the cost to the company's market value from President Obama's criticism was far outweighing the direct clean-up costs.[282]
Initially BP downplayed the incident; its CEO Tony Hayward called the amount of oil and dispersant "relatively tiny" in comparison with the "very big ocean."[292] Later, he drew an outpouring of criticism when he said that the spill was a disruption to Gulf Coast residents and himself adding, "You know, I'd like my life back."[293] BP's chief operating officer Doug Suttles contradicted the underwater plume discussion noting, "It may be down to how you define what a plume is here… The oil that has been found is in very minute quantities."[294] In June, BP launched a PR campaign and successfully bid for several search terms related to the spill on Google and other search engines so that the first sponsored search result linked directly to the company's website.[295][296] On 26 July 2010, it was announced that CEO Tony Hayward was to resign and would be replaced by Bob Dudley, who is an American citizen and previously worked for Amoco.[297][298]
Hayward's involvement in Deepwater Horizon has left him a highly controversial public figure. In May 2013, he was honored as a "distinguished leader" by the University of Birmingham, but his award ceremony was stopped on multiple occasions by jeers and walk-outs and the focus of a protest from People & Planet members.[299]
In July 2013, Hayward was awarded an honorary degree from Robert Gordon University. This was described as "a very serious error of judgement" by Friends of the Earth Scotland, and "a sick joke" by the university's Student President.[300]
International reactions
The U.S. government rejected offers of cleanup help from Canada, Croatia, France, Germany, Ireland, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, Romania, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United Nations. The U.S. State Department listed 70 assistance offers from 23 countries, all being initially declined, but later, 8 had been accepted.[301][302] The USCG actively requested skimming boats and equipment from several countries.[303]
Legal aspects and settlements
Investigations
In the United States the Deepwater Horizon investigation included several investigations and commissions, including reports by the USCG National Incident Commander, Admiral
An investigation of the possible causes of the explosion was launched on 22 April 2010 by the USCG and the
On 8 September 2010, BP released a 193-page report on its web site. The report places some of the blame for the accident on BP but also on Halliburton and Transocean.[309] The report found that on 20 April 2010, managers misread pressure data and gave their approval for rig workers to replace drilling fluid in the well with seawater, which was not heavy enough to prevent gas that had been leaking into the well from firing up the pipe to the rig, causing the explosion. The conclusion was that BP was partly to blame, as was Transocean, which owned the rig.[310] Responding to the report, Transocean and Halliburton placed all blame on BP.[311]
On 9 November 2010, a report by the Oil Spill Commission said that there had been "a rush to completion" on the well and criticised poor management decisions. "There was not a culture of safety on that rig," the co-chair said.[312]
The National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling released a final report on 5 January 2011.[313][314] The panel found that BP, Halliburton, and Transocean had attempted to work more cheaply and thus helped to trigger the explosion and ensuing leakage.[315] The report stated that "whether purposeful or not, many of the decisions that BP, Halliburton, and Transocean made that increased the risk of the Macondo blowout clearly saved those companies significant time (and money)."[315] BP released a statement in response to this, saying, that "even prior to the conclusion of the commission's investigation, BP instituted significant changes designed to further strengthen safety and risk management."[316] Transocean, however, blamed BP for making the decisions before the actual explosion occurred and government officials for permitting those decisions.[317] Halliburton stated that it was acting only upon the orders of BP when it injected the cement into the wall of the well.[316][318] It criticized BP for its failure to run a cement bond log test.[317] In the report, BP was accused of nine faults.[316][318] One was that it had not used a diagnostic tool to test the strength of the cement.[315] Another was ignoring a pressure test that had failed.[316] Still another was for not plugging the pipe with cement.[315] The study did not, however, place the blame on any one of these events. Rather, it concluded that "notwithstanding these inherent risks, the accident of April 20 was avoidable" and that "it resulted from clear mistakes made in the first instance by BP, Halliburton and Transocean, and by government officials who, relying too much on industry's assertions of the safety of their operations, failed to create and apply a program of regulatory oversight that would have properly minimized the risk of deepwater drilling."[316][318] The panel also noted that the government regulators did not have sufficient knowledge or authority to notice these cost-cutting decisions.[315]
On 23 March 2011, BOEMRE (former MMS) and the USCG published a forensic examination report on the blowout preventer, prepared by
The US government report issued in September 2011 stated that BP is ultimately responsible for the spill, and that Halliburton and Transocean share some of the blame.[21][320] The report states that the main cause was the defective cement job, and Halliburton, BP and Transocean were, in different ways, responsible for the accident.[21] The report stated that, although the events leading to the sinking of Deepwater Horizon were set into motion by the failure to prevent a well blowout, the investigation revealed numerous systems deficiencies, and acts and omissions by Transocean and its Deepwater Horizon crew, that had an adverse impact on the ability to prevent or limit the magnitude of the disaster. The report also states that a central cause of the blowout was failure of a cement barrier allowing hydrocarbons to flow up the wellbore, through the riser and onto the rig, resulting in the blowout. The loss of life and the subsequent pollution of the Gulf of Mexico were the result of poor risk management, last‐minute changes to plans, failure to observe and respond to critical indicators, inadequate well control response, and insufficient emergency bridge response training by companies and individuals responsible for drilling at the Macondo well and for the operation of the drilling platform.[21]
Spill response fund
On 16 June 2010, after BP executives met with President Obama, BP announced and established the Gulf Coast Claims Facility (GCCF), a $20 billion fund to settle claims arising from the Deepwater Horizon spill.[81][321] This fund was set aside for natural resource damages, state and local response costs, and individual compensation, but could not be used for fines or penalties.[81] Prior to establishing the GCCF, emergency compensation was paid by BP from an initial facility.[322]
The GCCF was administrated by attorney
The GCCF and its administrator Feinberg had been criticized about the amount and speed of payments as well as a lack of transparency.
In July 2013 BP made a motion in court to freeze payments on tens of thousands of claims, arguing inter alia that a staff attorney from the Deepwater Horizon Court-Supervised Settlement Program, the program responsible for evaluating compensation claims, had improperly profited from claims filed by a New Orleans law firm. The attorney is said to have received portions of settlement claims for clients he referred to the firm.[328] The federal judge assigned to the case, Judge Barbier, refused to halt the settlement program, saying he had not seen evidence of widespread fraud, adding that he was "offended by what he saw as attempts to smear the lawyer administering the claims."[329]
Civil litigation and settlements
By 26 May 2010, over 130 lawsuits relating to the spill had been filed
On 2 March 2012, BP and plaintiffs agreed to settle their lawsuits. The deal would settle roughly 100,000 claims filled by individuals and businesses affected by the spill.[259][333] On 13 August, BP asked US District Judge Carl Barbier to approve the settlement, saying its actions "did not constitute gross negligence or willful misconduct".[334] On 13 January 2013, Judge Barbier approved a medical-benefits portion of BP's proposed $7.8 billion partial settlement. People living for at least 60 days along oil-impacted shores or involved in the clean-up who can document one or more specific health conditions caused by the oil or dispersants are eligible for benefits, as are those injured during clean-up.[335] BP also agreed to spend $105 million over five years to set up a Gulf Coast health outreach program and pay for medical examinations.[46] According to a group presenting the plaintiffs, the deal has no specific cap.[336] BP says that it has $9.5 billion in assets set aside in a trust to pay the claims, and the settlement will not increase the $37.2 billion the company budgeted for spill-related expenses.[259] BP originally expected to spend $7.8 billion. By October 2013 it had increased its projection to $9.2 billion, saying it could be "significantly higher."[337]
On 31 August 2012, the US Department of Justice (DOJ) filed papers in federal court in New Orleans blaming BP for the Gulf oil spill, describing the spill as an example of "gross negligence and willful misconduct." In their statement the DOJ said that some of BP's arguments were "plainly misleading" and that the court should ignore BP's argument that the Gulf region is "undergoing a robust recovery". BP rejected the charges saying "BP believes it was not grossly negligent and looks forward to presenting evidence on this issue at trial in January."[338][339] The DOJ also said Transocean, the owner and operator of the Deepwater Horizon rig, was guilty of gross negligence as well.[338][340]
On 14 November 2012, BP and the US Department of Justice reached a settlement. BP will pay $4.5 billion in fines and other payments, the largest of its kind in US history. In addition, the U.S. government temporarily banned BP from new federal contracts over its "lack of business integrity".[341][342] The plea was accepted by Judge Sarah Vance of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana on 31 January 2013.[343] The settlement includes payments of $2.394 billion to the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, $1.15 billion to the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund, $350 million to the National Academy of Sciences for oil spill prevention and response research, $100 million to the North America Wetland Conservation Fund, $6 million to General Treasury and $525 million to the Securities and Exchange Commission.[24][60]
On 3 January 2013 the US Justice Department announced "Transocean Deepwater Inc. has agreed to plead guilty to violating the
On 25 July 2013 Halliburton pleaded guilty to destruction of critical evidence after the oil spill and said it would pay the maximum allowable fine of $200,000 and will be subject to three years of probation.[345]
On 9 July 2013 Alaska inventor and oil field veteran Chris McIntyre filed suit against BP, alleging that the company used his design to cap the Macondo Well without compensation. McIntyre sent BP the design for the capping device on 14 May 2010. BP subsequently used McIntyre's design (or one very similar) to shut in the well on 15 July 2010. BP maintains that its employees first conceived of the design some days before McIntyre. Both parties agree that the device did not exist prior to 20 April 2010. The case, Christopher McIntyre v. BP Exploration & Production is currently on appeal with the
In January 2014, a panel of the
In September 2014, Halliburton agreed to settle a large percentage of legal claims against it by paying $1.1 billion into a trust by way of three installments over two years.[349]
Justice Department lawsuit
BP and its partners in the oil well, Transocean and Halliburton, went on trial on 25 February 2013 in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana in New Orleans to determine payouts and fines under the Clean Water Act and the Natural Resources Damage Assessment. The plaintiffs included the U.S. Justice Department, Gulf states and private individuals. Tens of billions of dollars in liability and fines were at stake. A finding of gross negligence would result in a four-fold increase in the fines BP would have to pay for violating the federal Clean Water Act, and leave the company liable for punitive damages for private claims.[350]
The trial's first phase was to determine the liability of BP, Transocean, Halliburton, and other companies, and if they acted with gross negligence and willful misconduct.[351][352] The second phase scheduled in September 2013 focused on the flow rate of the oil and the third phase scheduled in 2014 was to consider damages.[353] According to the plaintiffs' lawyers the major cause of an explosion was the mishandling of a rig safety test, while inadequate training of the staff, poor maintenance of the equipment and substandard cement were also mentioned as things leading to the disaster.[352][353] According to The Wall Street Journal the U.S. government and Gulf Coast states had prepared an offer to BP for a $16 billion settlement. However, it was not clear if this deal had been officially proposed to BP and if BP has accepted it.[354]
On 4 September 2014, U.S. District Judge Carl Barbier ruled BP was guilty of gross negligence and willful misconduct. He described BP's actions as "reckless." He said Transocean's and Halliburton's actions were "negligent." He apportioned 67% of the blame for the spill to BP, 30% to Transocean, and 3% to Halliburton. Fines would be apportioned commensurate with the degree of negligence of the parties, measured against the number of barrels of oil spilled. Under the Clean Water Act fines can be based on a cost per barrel of up to $4,300, at the discretion of the judge. The number of barrels was in dispute at the conclusion of the trial with BP arguing 2.5 million barrels were spilled over the 87 days the spill lasted, while the court contends 4.2 million barrels were spilled. BP issued a statement strongly disagreeing with the finding, and saying the court's decision would be appealed.[355]
Barbier ruled that BP had acted with “conscious disregard of known risks" and rejected BP’s assertion that other parties were equally responsible for the oil spill. His ruling stated that BP "employees took risks that led to the largest environmental disaster in U.S. history,” that the company was “reckless,” and determined that several crucial BP decisions were “primarily driven by a desire to save time and money, rather than ensuring that the well was secure.” The ruling means that BP, which had already spent more than $28 billion on cleanup costs and damage claims, may be liable for another $18 billion in damages, four times the Clean Water Act maximum penalties and many times more than the $3.5 billion BP had already allotted. BP strongly disagreed with the ruling and filed an immediate appeal. The size of the ruling "casts a cloud over BP’s future," The New York Times reported.[28][356]
On 2 July 2015, BP, the U.S. Justice Department and five gulf states announced that the company agreed to pay a record settlement of $18.7 billion.[357] To date BP’s cost for the clean-up, environmental and economic damages and penalties has reached $54 billion.[358]
Criminal charges
In addition to the private lawsuits and civil governmental actions, the federal government charged multiple companies and five individuals with federal crimes.
In the November 2012 resolution of the federal charges against it, BP agreed to plead guilty to 11 felony counts related to the deaths of the 11 workers and paid a $4 billion fine.[24] Transocean's plead guilty to a misdemeanor charge as part of its $1.4 billion fine.
In April 2012, the Justice Department filed the first criminal charge against Kurt Mix, a BP engineer, for obstructing justice by deleting messages showing that BP knew the flow rate was three times higher than initial claims by the company, and knew that "Top Kill" was unlikely to succeed, but claimed otherwise.[359][360][361] Three more BP employees were charged in November 2012. Site managers Donald Vidrine and Robert Kaluza were charged with manslaughter for acting negligently in their supervision of key safety tests performed on the rig prior to the explosion, and failure to alert onshore engineers of problems in the drilling operation.[362] David Rainey, BP's former vice-president for exploration in the Gulf of Mexico, was charged with obstructing Congress by misrepresenting the rate that oil was flowing out of the well.[363] Lastly, Anthony Badalamenti, a Halliburton manager, was charged with instructing two employees to delete data related to Halliburton's cementing job on the oil well.[364]
None of the charges against individuals resulted in any prison time, and no charges were levied against upper level executives. Anthony Badalementi was sentenced to one year probation,[365] Donald Vidrine paid a $50,000 fine and received 10 months probation,[366] Kurt Mix received 6 months probation,[367] and David Rainey and Robert Kaluza were acquitted.[367][366]
In popular culture
Deepwater Horizon is a 2016 film based on the explosion directed by Peter Berg and starring Mark Wahlberg. In the US on 7 August 2015 The Runner was released, a film directed by Austin Stark and starring Nicolas Cage, which showcases the events of the oil spill following the Deepwater Horizon explosion,[368] even if it "is a fictional story ... and not totally about that environmental disaster".[369]
See also
- Timeline of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill
- List of industrial disasters
- List of oil spills
- Offshore oil and gas in the US Gulf of Mexico
References
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Further reading
- Khatchadourian, Raffi (11 March 2011). "A Reporter at Large: The Gulf war". The New Yorker. 87 (04): 36–59. Retrieved 15 December 2013.
- Liu, Yonggang; MacFadyen, Amy; Ji, Zhen-Gang; Weisberg, Robert H. (2011). Monitoring and Modeling the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: A Record-Breaking Enterprise. Geophysical Monograph Series. Vol. 195. doi:10.1029/GM195.
- Marghany, Maged (15 December 2014). "Utilization of a genetic algorithm for the automatic detection of oil spill from RADARSAT-2 SAR satellite data". .
External links
- Deepwater BP Oil Spill at the Wayback Machine (archive index) – at Whitehouse.gov
- Deepwater Horizon Incident, Gulf of Mexico from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
- RestoreTheGulf.gov official U.S. Government Web site, taking over content and functions from Deepwater Horizon Response site
- Smithsonian's Ocean Portal
- Science in a Time of Crisis: WHOI's response to the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill a multimedia presentation from Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
- "Approaches for Ecosystem Services Valuation for the Gulf of Mexico After the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Interim Report by the National Academy of Sciences"
- Erik Stokstad (8 February 2013). "BP Research Dollars Yield Signs of Cautious Hope". Sciencemag.org. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
- CDC – Oil Spill Response Resources – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic
- Daniel Kaniewski; James Carafano (9 August 2010). "Critical Lessons from the Federal Response to the Gulf Oil Spill". The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 31 July 2015.
- The Role of BP in the Deepwater Horizon Explosion and Oil Spill: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, One Hundred Eleventh Congress, Second Session, June 17, 2010
Lead state agency websites
- Florida Department of Environmental Protection (DEP)
- Mississippi DEQ
- State of Florida Oil Spill Academic Task Force
News media
- Full coverage from The New York Times
- Full coverage from The Times-Picayune(New Orleans)
- ScientificAmerican.com 2015-04020 BP Gulf Oil Spill: 5 Years Later Indepth Report
- Deepwater Horizon oil spill caused lasting damage, report says
- BP Oil Spill, NPR
Interactive maps
- Gulf Oil Spill Tracker interactive map and form for citizen reporting (SkyTruth.org)
- Map and Estimates of the Oil Spilled (New York Times)
- Where Oil Has Made Landfall (New York Times)
Images
- Rig fire at Deepwater Horizon 4/21/10, video at CNN iReport
- GOES-13 satellite images on the CIMSSSatellite Blog
- Underwater Video Examines Multiple Leak Points Causing BP Oil Spill
- The Big Fix. Documentary about the oil spill
Animations and graphics
- Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill Interactive: Smithsonian Ocean Portal
- BBC News – interactive animation to the disaster and blocking efforts
- New York Times exploded viewdiagrams on the methods used to stop the oil spill
- Graphic: Where the oil and gas went