Thorium fuel cycle
The thorium fuel cycle is a
The thorium fuel cycle has several potential advantages over a
History
Concerns about the
At
In 1993, Carlo Rubbia proposed the concept of an energy amplifier or "accelerator driven system" (ADS), which he saw as a novel and safe way to produce nuclear energy that exploited existing accelerator technologies. Rubbia's proposal offered the potential to incinerate high-activity nuclear waste and produce energy from natural thorium and depleted uranium.[13][14]
Kirk Sorensen, former NASA scientist and Chief Technologist at Flibe Energy, has been a long-time promoter of thorium fuel cycle and particularly liquid fluoride thorium reactors (LFTRs). He first researched thorium reactors while working at NASA, while evaluating power plant designs suitable for lunar colonies. In 2006 Sorensen started "energyfromthorium.com" to promote and make information available about this technology.[15]
A 2011 MIT study concluded that although there is little in the way of barriers to a thorium fuel cycle, with current or near term light-water reactor designs there is also little incentive for any significant market penetration to occur. As such they conclude there is little chance of thorium cycles replacing conventional uranium cycles in the current nuclear power market, despite the potential benefits.[16]
Nuclear reactions with thorium
In the thorium cycle, fuel is formed when 232
Th
Pa
β−
decay to become 233
U
, the fuel:
Fission product waste
Actinide waste
In a reactor, when a neutron hits a fissile atom (such as certain isotopes of uranium), it either splits the nucleus or is captured and transmutes the atom. In the case of 233
U
, the transmutations tend to produce useful nuclear fuels rather than
237Np | ||||||||||||||
↑ | ||||||||||||||
231U | ← | 232U | ↔ | 233U | ↔ | 234U | ↔ | 235U | ↔ | 236U | → | 237U | ||
↓ | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | |||||||||||
231Pa | → | 232Pa | ← | 233Pa | → | 234Pa | ||||||||
↑ | ↑ | |||||||||||||
230Th | → | 231Th | ← | 232Th | → | 233Th | ||||||||
|
234
U
, like most
Np
, 238
Pu
, and eventually fissile 239
Pu
and heavier isotopes of plutonium. The 237
Np
can be removed and stored as waste or retained and transmuted to plutonium, where more of it fissions, while the remainder becomes 242
Pu
, then americium and curium
However, the
Uranium-232 contamination
Pa
Th
:
Unlike most even numbered heavy isotopes, 232
U
is also a
Th
Thorium-cycle fuels produce hard
Th
and the radiation from the rest of the decay chain, which gradually build up as 228
Th
reaccumulates. The contamination could also be avoided by using a molten-salt breeder reactor and separating the 233
Pa
before it decays into 233
U
.[3]
Nuclear fuel
As a fertile material thorium is similar to 238
U
, the major part of natural and depleted uranium. The thermal neutron absorption
Th
are about three and one third times those of the respective values for 238
U
.
Advantages
The primary physical advantage of thorium fuel is that it uniquely makes possible a breeder reactor that runs with slow neutrons, otherwise known as a thermal breeder reactor.[6] These reactors are often considered simpler than the more traditional fast-neutron breeders. Although the thermal neutron fission cross section (σf) of the resulting 233
U
is comparable to 235
U
and 239
Pu
, it has a much lower capture cross section (σγ) than the latter two fissile isotopes, providing fewer non-fissile neutron absorptions and improved neutron economy. The ratio of neutrons released per neutron absorbed (η) in 233
U
is greater than two over a wide range of energies, including the thermal spectrum. A breeding reactor in the uranium–plutonium cycle needs to use fast neutrons, because in the thermal spectrum one neutron absorbed by 239
Pu
on average leads to less than two neutrons.
Thorium is estimated to be about three to four times more abundant than uranium in Earth's crust,
Thorium-based fuels also display favorable physical and chemical properties that improve reactor and
Because the 233
U
produced in thorium fuels is significantly contaminated with 232
U
in proposed power reactor designs, thorium-based
The long-term (on the order of roughly 103 to 106 years) radiological hazard of conventional uranium-based used nuclear fuel is dominated by plutonium and other
Th
. 98–99% of thorium-cycle fuel nuclei would fission at either 233
U
or 235
U
, so fewer long-lived transuranics are produced. Because of this, thorium is a potentially attractive alternative to uranium in mixed oxide (MOX) fuels to minimize the generation of transuranics and maximize the destruction of plutonium.[22]
Disadvantages
There are several challenges to the application of thorium as a nuclear fuel, particularly for solid fuel reactors:
In contrast to uranium, naturally occurring thorium is effectively
In an
In a once-through thorium fuel cycle, thorium-based fuels produce far less long-lived
Pa
and 233
U
.[17] On a closed cycle,233
U
and 231
Pa
can be reprocessed. 231
Pa
is also considered an excellent burnable poison absorber in light water reactors.[23]
Another challenge associated with the thorium fuel cycle is the comparatively long interval over which 232
Th
breeds to 233
U
. The
Alternatively, if solid thorium is used in a
U
. This is also true of recycled thorium because of the presence of 228
Th
, which is part of the 232
U
decay sequence. Further, unlike proven uranium fuel recycling technology (e.g. PUREX
Although the presence of 232
U
complicates matters, there are public documents showing that 233
U
has been used once in a nuclear weapon test. The United States tested a composite 233
U
-plutonium bomb core in the MET (Military Effects Test) blast during Operation Teapot in 1955, though with much lower yield than expected.[24]
Advocates for liquid core and
Thorium-fueled reactors
Thorium fuels have fueled several different reactor types, including
List of thorium-fueled reactors
It has been suggested that this section be split out into another article titled List of thorium-fueled reactors. (Discuss) (August 2020) |
This article needs to be updated.(August 2020) |
From IAEA TECDOC-1450 "Thorium Fuel Cycle – Potential Benefits and Challenges", Table 1: Thorium utilization in different experimental and power reactors.[6] Additionally from Energy Information Administration, "Spent Nuclear Fuel Discharges from U. S. Reactors", Table B4: Dresden 1 Assembly Class.[26]
Name | Operation period | Country | Reactor type | Power | Fuel |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
NRU |
1947 (NRX) + 1957 (NRU); Irradiation–testing of few fuel elements | Canada | MTR (pin assemblies) | see ) |
20 MW; 200 MW (Th+235 U , Test Fuel |
Dresden Unit 1 | 1960–1978 | United States | BWR | 197 MW(e) | ThO2 corner rods, UO2 clad in Zircaloy-2 tube |
1960–2010 (CIRUS); others in operation | India | MTR thermal | 40 MWt; 100 MWt; 30 kWt (low power, research) | Al+233 U Driver fuel, ‘J’ rod of Th & ThO2, ‘J’ rod of ThO2 | |
Indian Point 1 | 1962–1965[27] | United States | PWR , (pin assemblies) |
285 MW(e) | Th+233 U Driver fuel, oxide pellets |
BORAX-IV & Elk River Station |
1963–1968 | United States | BWR (pin assemblies) | 2.4 MW(e); 24 MW(e) | Th+235 U Driver fuel oxide pellets |
ORNL |
1964–1969 | United States | MSR |
7.5 MWt | 233 U molten fluorides |
Peach Bottom | 1966–1972 | United States | HTGR, Experimental (prismatic block) | 40 MW(e) | Th+235 U Driver fuel, coated fuel particles, oxide & dicarbides |
Dragon (OECD-Euratom) | 1966–1973 | UK (also Sweden, Norway and Switzerland) | HTGR, Experimental (pin-in-block design) | 20 MWt | Th+235 U Driver fuel, coated fuel particles, oxide & dicarbides |
AVR |
1967–1988 | Germany (West) | pebble bed reactor ) |
15 MW(e) | Th+235 U Driver fuel, coated fuel particles, oxide & dicarbides |
Lingen | 1968–1973 | Germany (West) | BWR irradiation-testing | 60 MW(e) | Test fuel (Th,Pu)O2 pellets |
SUSPOP/KSTR KEMA | 1974–1977 | Netherlands | Aqueous homogeneous suspension (pin assemblies) | 1 MWt | Th+HEU, oxide pellets |
Fort St Vrain |
1976–1989 | United States | HTGR, Power (prismatic block) | 330 MW(e) | Th+235 U Driver fuel, coated fuel particles, Dicarbide |
Shippingport |
1977–1982 | United States | PWR , (pin assemblies) |
100 MW(e) | Th+233 U Driver fuel, oxide pellets |
RAPS 2, 3 & 4 |
1980 (RAPS 2) +; continuing in all new PHWRs | India | PHWR , (pin assemblies) |
220 MW(e) | ThO2 pellets (for neutron flux flattening of initial core after start-up) |
FBTR |
1985; in operation | India | LMFBR , (pin assemblies) |
40 MWt | ThO2 blanket |
THTR-300 | 1985–1989 | Germany (West) | pebble type ) |
300 MW(e) | Th+235 U Driver fuel, coated fuel particles, oxide & dicarbides |
TMSR-LF1 | 2023; operating license issued | China | Liquid fuel thorium-based molten salt experimental reactor | 2 MWt | Thorium-based molten salt |
Petten | 2024; planned | Netherlands | High Flux Reactor thorium molten salt experiment | 45 MW(e) | ? |
See also
Nuclear technology portal Energy portal
- Thorium
- Thorium-232
- Occurrence of thorium
- Thorium-based nuclear power
- List of countries by thorium resources
- List of countries by uranium reserves
- Advanced heavy-water reactor
- Alvin Radkowsky
- CANDU reactor
- Fuji MSR
- Peak uranium
- Radioactive waste
- Thorium Energy Alliance
- Weinberg Foundation
- World energy resources and consumption
References
- ^ a b Robert Hargraves; Ralph Moir (January 2011). "Liquid Fuel Nuclear Reactors". American Physical Society Forum on Physics & Society. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
- ^ Sublette, Carey (20 February 1999). "Nuclear Materials FAQ". nuclearweaponarchive.org. Retrieved October 23, 2019.
- ^ S2CID 8033110. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-12-03. Retrieved 2015-03-02.)
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link - ^ ""Superfuel" Thorium a Proliferation Risk?". 5 December 2012.
- S2CID 4414368.
We are concerned, however, that other processes, which might be conducted in smaller facilities, could be used to convert 232Th into 233U while minimizing contamination by 232U, thus posing a proliferation threat. Notably, the chemical separation of an intermediate isotope — protactinium-233 — that decays into 233U is a cause for concern. ... The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) considers 8 kilograms of 233U to be enough to construct a nuclear weapon1. Thus, 233U poses proliferation risks.
- ^ a b c d e f g "IAEA-TECDOC-1450 Thorium Fuel Cycle – Potential Benefits and Challenges" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. May 2005. Retrieved 2009-03-23.
- ^ Ganesan Venkataraman (1994). Bhabha and his magnificent obsessions. Universities Press. p. 157.
- ^ "IAEA-TECDOC-1349 Potential of thorium-based fuel cycles to constrain plutonium and to reduce the long-lived waste toxicity" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. 2002. Retrieved 2009-03-24.
- ^ Evans, Brett (April 14, 2006). "Scientist urges switch to thorium". ABC News. Archived from the original on 2010-03-28. Retrieved 2011-09-17.
- ^ Martin, Richard (December 21, 2009). "Uranium Is So Last Century – Enter Thorium, the New Green Nuke". Wired. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
- ISSN 0012-821X.
- ^ Miller, Daniel (March 2011). "Nuclear community snubbed reactor safety message: expert". ABC News. Retrieved 2012-03-25.
- Cosmos. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
- ^ MacKay, David J. C. (February 20, 2009). Sustainable Energy – without the hot air. UIT Cambridge Ltd. p. 166. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
- ^ "Flibe Energy". Flibe Energy. Retrieved 2012-06-12.
- ^ The Future of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle (PDF) (Report). MIT. 2011. p. 181.
- ^ a b Le Brun, C.; L. Mathieu; D. Heuer; A. Nuttin. "Impact of the MSBR concept technology on long-lived radio-toxicity and proliferation resistance" (PDF). Technical Meeting on Fissile Material Management Strategies for Sustainable Nuclear Energy, Vienna 2005. Retrieved 2010-06-20.
- ^ Brissot R.; Heuer D.; Huffer E.; Le Brun, C.; Loiseaux, J-M; Nifenecker H.; Nuttin A. (July 2001). "Nuclear Energy With (Almost) No Radioactive Waste?". Laboratoire de Physique Subatomique et de Cosmologie (LPSC). Archived from the original on 2011-05-25.
according to computer simulations done at ISN, this Protactinium dominates the residual toxicity of losses at 10000 years
- ^ "Interactive Chart of Nuclides". Brookhaven National Laboratory. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
Thermal neutron cross sections in barns (isotope, capture:fission, f/f+c, f/c) 233U 45.26:531.3 92.15% 11.74; 235U 98.69:585.0 85.57% 5.928; 239Pu 270.7:747.9 73.42% 2.763; 241Pu 363.0:1012 73.60% 2.788.
- ^ "9219.endfb7.1". atom.kaeri.re.kr.
- ^ "The Use of Thorium as Nuclear Fuel" (PDF). American Nuclear Society. November 2006. Retrieved 2009-03-24.
- ^ "Thorium test begins". World Nuclear News. 21 June 2013. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
- ^ "Protactinium-231 –New burnable neutron absorber". 11 November 2017.
- ^ "Operation Teapot". 11 November 2017. Retrieved 11 November 2017.
- ^ "IAEA-TECDOC-1319 Thorium Fuel Utilization: Options and trends" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. November 2002. Retrieved 2009-03-24.
- ISBN 978-0-7881-2070-1. Retrieved 11 June 2012. They were manufactured by General Electric (assembly code XDR07G) and later sent to the Savannah River Sitefor reprocessing.
- ^ "Indian Readied for New Uranium". Mount Vernon Argus. White Plains, New York. March 16, 1966. p. 17. Retrieved March 21, 2023.
Further reading
- Kasten, P. R. (1998). "Review of the Radkowsky Thorium reactor concept" Science & Global Security, 7(3), 237–269.
- Duncan Clark (9 September 2011), "Thorium advocates launch pressure group. Huge optimism for thorium nuclear energy at the launch of the Weinberg Foundation", The Guardian
- Nelson, A. T. (2012). "Thorium: Not a near-term commercial nuclear fuel". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 68 (5): 33–44. S2CID 144725888.
- B.D. Kuz'minov, V.N. Manokhin, (1998) "Status of nuclear data for the thorium fuel cycle", IAEA translation from the Russian journal Yadernye Konstanty (Nuclear Constants) Issue No. 3–4, 1997
- Thorium and uranium fuel cycles comparison by the UK National Nuclear Laboratory
- Fact sheet on thorium Archived 2013-02-16 at the Wayback Machine at the World Nuclear Association.
- Annotated bibliography for the thorium fuel cycle Archived 2010-10-07 at the Wayback Machine from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues