Umayyad tradition of cursing Ali
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Cursing Ali was a state policy introduced by
Background
The controversial policies of the third
Ali defeated the rebellion of Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr in the
The practice
After his accession, Mu'awiya mandated cursing Ali as part of the communal prayers in the Islamic territories.[27][28][29] Among others, this is reported by the Shia-leaning historians al-Ya'qubi (d. 897–8) and al-Mas'udi (d. 956) and the Sunni historians al-Tabari (d. 923) and Abulfeda (d. 1331).[30][4] In particular, Mu'awiya ordered his governor of Kufa, al-Mughira, to regularly curse Ali and harass his followers, while praising Uthman and empowering his followers, as reported by al-Tabari.[4][31][32] A tradition attributed to al-Mughira's son describes how the governor failed to convince Mu'awiya to abandon this policy and leave behind a legacy of reconciliation. Mua'wiya refused, saying that there would be no lasting fame after Muhammad, referring to the prophet by his nickname of Ibn Abi Kabsha among the Meccan infidels. The governor then confessed to his son that he henceforth considered Mu'awiya as such, an infidel, as reported by the Sunni historian al-Zubayr ibn Bakkar (d. 870). While probably not authentic, the account may nevertheless reflect the attitude towards Mu'awiya among early Sunni historians.[33]
The practice of cursing Ali continued for some sixty years, and the Umayyad caliphs did so also on the
That this practice was widespread is also the Shia view,
Hujr ibn Adi
Hujr was a companion of Muhammad and an ardent supporter of Ali.[27] Respected for his piety, Hujr was in Kufa a distinguished elder of his tribe, the Kinda,[27] though not its leader.[31] After the accession of Mu'awiya, he regularly protested the cursing of Ali in the mosque,[31] which was tolerated by al-Mughira but not by his successor Ziyad ibn Abihi, who was appointed in 671 to govern Kufa. Ziyad arrested Hujr and sent him to Mu'awiya, who put Hujr on trial for high treason and then executed him and a few others. Before death, he was given the opportunity to save his life by cursing Ali, which he refused.[39][40][41] This was probably the first judicial execution of Muslims for high treason and was widely condemned at the time,[42][43] even by Aisha bint Abi Bakr,[44] who was otherwise hostile to Ali.[12][45] Later the execution of Hujr was called a pernicious crime by the Sunni theologian Hasan al-Basri (d. 728).[27] Nevertheless, early historians are at odds about Hujr.[46] The early (Sunni) traditionist Hisham is hostile to Hujr while the Shia-leaning historians Abu Mikhnaf (d. 773–4) and al-Mas'udi are sympathetic to him.[47] Among modern authors, the execution is condemned by Madelung and by the Muslim author Tarek Fatah (d. 2023),[48][49] while Wellhausen sides with Mu'awiya.[50]
Other cases
Under the Umayyads, some Shias were forced to curse Ali to save their lives.
Footnotes
- ^ a b Momen 1985, p. 28.
- ^ Veccia Vaglieri 2012a.
- ^ a b Jafri 1979, p. 157.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Madelung 1997, p. 334.
- ^ Glassé 2001, p. 423.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 141, 142.
- ^ Jafri 1979, p. 63.
- ^ a b Momen 1985, p. 24.
- ^ Jafri 1979, p. 64.
- ^ Kennedy 2016, p. 65.
- ^ Shaban 1970, p. 72.
- ^ a b Donner 2010, p. 158.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 107, 157.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 204–5.
- ^ Kennedy 2013, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 172, 173, 238.
- ^ a b Anthony 2013, p. 31.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 241.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 243.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 257.
- ^ Donner 2010, p. 165.
- ^ a b Donner 2010, p. 163.
- ^ Levi Della Vida 2012.
- ^ Kennedy 2013, p. 10.
- ^ Veccia Vaglieri 2012b.
- ^ Hinds 2012.
- ^ a b c d Madelung 2016.
- ^ a b O'Leary 2013, p. 98.
- ^ a b Dakake 2007, p. 67.
- ^ Tabatabai 1975, pp. 49, 65n72.
- ^ a b c Wellhausen 1975, p. 96.
- ^ a b c Jafri 1979, p. 167.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 335.
- ^ a b c d Fatah 2008, p. 159.
- ^ Shah-Kazemi 2007, pp. 62–3.
- ^ a b Tabatabai 1975, p. 49.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 190.
- ^ Rahman 1989, p. 58.
- ^ Wellhausen 1975, pp. 96–101.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 334–9.
- ^ Jafri 1979, pp. 159–65.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. 338–9.
- ^ Wellhausen 1975, pp. 100–1.
- ^ Wellhausen 1975, p. 101.
- ^ McHugo 2018, §1.III.
- ^ Dakake 2007, p. 78.
- ^ Dakake 2007, pp. 78–81.
- ^ Madelung 1997, p. 338.
- ^ Fatah 2008, pp. 159–60.
- ^ Wellhausen 1975, p. 100.
- ^ MacLean 1989, p. 126.
References
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- MacLean, Derryl N. (1989). Religion and Society in Arab Sind. Brill.
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- Rahman, Habib Ur (1989). A Chronology of Islamic History, 570-1000 CE. G.K. Hall. ISBN 9780816190676.
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- Veccia Vaglieri, L. (2012b). "Ibn Muld̲j̲am". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). ISBN 9789004161214.
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