Anti-Shi'ism
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Anti-Shi'ism is hatred of, prejudice against, discrimination against, persecution of, and violence against Shia Muslims because of their religious beliefs, traditions, and cultural heritage. The term was first used by Shia Rights Watch in 2011, but it has been used in informal research and written in scholarly articles for decades.[1][2]
The dispute over who was the rightful successor to
The Sunni rulers under the Umayyads sought to marginalize the Shia minority. Throughout the
On the other hand, Sunni and Shia Muslims have lived together in peace over the years. In many countries, they have prayed in the same mosques, while having distinct rituals. Shia identitarianism was based on victimhood narrative of alleged intolerance from mainstream Sunnis who historically questioned their loyalty and Islamic credentials as well as over verdicts of Takfir from hardline Sunnis who denounces all Shias as apostates.[5]
Historic persecution
Umayyads
The grandson of Muhammad,
Siege of Baghdad
After the Mongol
Persecution in the Seljuk/Ottoman Empire
In response to the support of
Sack of Shamakhi
The Sack of
Wahhabi sack of Karbala
On 21 April 1802, about 12,000 Wahhabi Sunnis under the command of
Indian Subcontinent
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While Shias and Sunnis have lived side by side in the subcontinent for almost fifteen centuries, anti-Shia violence has been growing consistently for the past three centuries. Anti-Shi'ism has two aspects: shiaphobic literature and hate-crimes. The anti Shia literature that portrays Shias as religiously heretic, morally corrupt, politically traitors and lesser human beings sets the ideological framework for the violence against them. In the medieval period, the Middle East saw bloody clashes between both sects but the Indian subcontinent remained safe and peaceful because of the secular policy of Mughals. Until the end of the seventeenth century AD, only two anti-Shia books were written in India: Minhaj al-Din by Makhdoom-ul Mulk Mullah Abdullah Sultanpuri and Radd-e Rawafiz by Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.[19] Sirhindi also wrote this treatise in order to justify the slaughter of shias by Abdullah Khan Uzbek in Mashhad. In this he argues:
Since the Shia permit cursing Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and one of the chaste wives (of the Prophet), which in itself constitutes infidelity, it is incumbent upon the Muslim ruler, nay upon all people, in compliance with the command of the Omniscient King (Allah), to kill them and to oppress them in order to elevate the true religion. It is permissible to destroy their buildings and to seize their property and belongings.[20]
As far as armed violence is concerned, the medieval period has only few examples of Shias being killed for their beliefs, most notable incidents are the killing of
However, in the eighteenth century AD, the number of polemical writings started to increase.[29] It started with Aurangzeb's discrimination against the Shias. The sixth Mughal emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir hated the Shias; he abolished the secular policy of Akbar and tried to establish the superiority of the Sunni sect. He supervised the compilation of an encyclopaedia of religious rulings, called fatawa Alamgiri, in which Shias were said to be heretics. The spiritual leader of Bohra Shias, Sayyid Qutb-ud-din, along with his 700 followers were massacred on the orders of Aurangzeb. He banned the tazia processions.[30] In the century following his death, polemical literature and sectarian killings increased.
Aurengzeb heavily persecuted many Shi‘a communities. ‘Ali Muhammad Khan, whose father accompanied Aurengzeb during his Deccan campaigns, reports:
During the reign of the late emperor, tremendous emphasis was placed on matters of the shari‘a and on refuting various [non-Sunni] schools of thought. No efforts were spared in this regard. Many people thus emerged who maintained that, for God's sake, their very salvation lay in this. Because of religious bigotry, which is the bane of humankind, they placed a group under suspicion of Shi‘ism (rafḍ), thus destroying the very ramparts of the castle of their existence [i.e., having them killed], while others were thrown into prison.[31]
Shah Waliullah (1703–1762 AD) was among those Sunni clerics who were patronized by the Sunni elite. He started his career by translating the anti-Shia track of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, radd-e-rawafiz, into Arabic under the title of al-muqaddima tus-saniyyah fil intisar al-firqa te-sunniya (المقدمۃ الثانیہ فی الانتصار للفرقۃ السنیہ). He continued to criticise the Shias in his books like Qurat-ul Ainain (قراۃ العینین), Azalah-tul Khafa (ازالۃ الخفا), Fayyuz-ul Haramain (فیوض الحرمین), etc.[32][33] Other Sunni polemics include Najat al-Muminin (نجات المومنین) by Muhammad Mohsin Kashmiri, and Durr-ut Tahqiq (درالتحقیق) by Muhammad Fakhir Allahabadi.[29] In a letter to Sunni nawabs, Shah Waliullah said:
Strict orders should be issued in all Islamic towns forbidding religious ceremonies publicly practised by Hindus such as the performance of Holi and ritual bathing in the Ganges. On the tenth of Muharram, the Shias should not be allowed to go beyond the bounds of moderation, neither should they be rude nor repeat stupid things in the streets or bazars.[34]
When on his and Rohilla's invitation, Ahmad Shah Abdali Durrani conquered Delhi, he expelled Shias.[35] Shias of Kashmir were also massacred in an organised campaign after Afghans took power.[26] In Multan, under the Durrani rule, Shia were not allowed to practise their religion.[36]
Shah Waliullah's eldest son,
Syed Ahmad Barelvi and Shah Ismail Dihlavi took up arms to enforce their puritanical views and migrated to Peshawar region to establish an Islamic Caliphate. They were the pioneers of anti-Shia terrorism in the subcontinent. Barbara Metcalf says:
"A second group of Abuses Syed Ahmad held were those that originated from Shi’i influence. He particularly urged Muslims to give up the keeping of ta’ziyahs. The replicas of the tombs of the martyrs of Karbala taken in procession during the mourning ceremony of Muharram. Muhammad Isma’il wrote,
‘a true believer should regard the breaking of a tazia by force to be as virtuous an action as destroying idols. If he cannot break them himself, let him order others to do so. If this even be out of his power, let him at least detest and abhor them with his whole heart and soul’.
Sayyid Ahmad himself is said, no doubt with considerable exaggeration, to have torn down thousands of imambaras, the building that house the taziyahs".[38]
These attacks were carried out between 1818 and 1820. Rizvi has given more details about time, places and circumstances in which these attacks were carried out.[39]
With the start of direct Crown control after 1857, religious institutions and scholars lost most of the financial support they enjoyed previously. They now had to rely on public funding, the chanda. Secondly, when the colonial government decided to introduce modern societal reforms, and everybody became ascribed to a singular identity in census and politically importance in voting. Thus, politicisation of religion and marking boundaries of the spheres of influence became a financial need of the religious leaders. They started to describe everybody belonging to their sect or religion as one monolithic group of people whose religion was in danger. The third important social change was the printing press which made writing and publishing pamphlets and books easy and cheap. The fourth factor was the railways and postal service; it became easy for communal leaders to travel, communicate and build networks beyond their place of residence. This changed the religious discourse drastically and gave birth to communal and sectarian violence. The puritanical wahhabists had already excluded Azadari from the Sunni Islam, and Arya Samaj and Shudhis started to ask Hindus to refrain from Azadari.
By the start of the 1900s, the majority of Sunnis still observed Muharram. Molana Abdul Shakoor Lakhnavi devised a clever plan to widen the gulf between the Shias and Sunnis. He started to advocate a celebration of victory of Imam Hussain over Yazid. He established a separate Sunni Imambargah at Phul Katora and asked Sunnis to wear red or yellow dress instead of black, and carry a decorated charyari flag instead of the traditional black alam-e-Abbas. Instead of honouring the Sahaba on their birthdays, he started to arrange public meetings under the banner of bazm-e-siddiqi, bazm-e-farooqi and bazm-e-usmani, in the first ten days of Muharram to revere the first three Caliphs and named it Madh-e-Sahaba. He would discuss the lives of the first three Caliphs and attack Shia beliefs. Shias saw it an attempt to sabotage the remembrance of the tragedy of Karbala and started to recite tabarra in response.[40]
After the failure of the Khilafat movement in the 1920s, the political ulema had lost their support in public and Muslims started to follow modern minds like Muhammad Ali Jinnah. To keep themselves relevant, the ulema established a militant Deobandi organisation, Majlis Ahrar-e-Islam, in 1931. They came from neighbouring Malihabad, Kanpur, Delhi, Meerut and from as far as Peshawar.[41] This organisation can be considered as predecessor of Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan (SSP). They first agitated against the Ahmedis in Kashmir and now they were looking for an opportunity. It was provided by Molana Abdul shakoor Lakhnavi's son Molana Abdul Shakoor Farooqi. He was a graduate of Darul Uloom Deoband and he had established a seminary in Lucknow in 1931 right on the route of Azadari, called Dar-ul-Muballighin.[42] Molana Abdul Shakoor Farooqi wrote many books and pamphlets. Shias responded by writing rejoinders. As paper had become available in plenty, these writings spread all over subcontinent and caused incidents of violence, though negligible compared to what was happening in UP. Dhulipala says:
The problem broke out with renewed vigour in 1936 on Ashura day when two Sunnis disobeyed orders and publicly recited Charyari in the city centre of Lucknow. They were arrested and prosecuted, but then on Chhelum day more Sunnis took part in reciting Charyari and fourteen were arrested. This led to a new agitation by the Lucknow Sunnis in favour of reciting these verses publicly, which came to be known as Madhe Sahaba.[43]
Azadari in UP was no more peaceful; it would never be the same again. Violence went so far that on Ashura 1940, a Deobandi terrorist attacked the Ashura procession with a bomb. Hollister writes:
"Conflicts between Sunnis and Shias at Muharram are not infrequent. Processions in the cities are accompanied by police along fixed lines of march. The following quotations from a single newspaper are not usual. They indicate what might happen if government did not keep the situation under control: ‘adequate measures avert incidents’, ‘Muharram passed off peacefully’, ‘All shops remained closed in ... in order to avoid incidents’, ‘Several women offered satyagraha in front of the final procession ... about twenty miles from Allahabad. They object to the passing of the procession through their fields’, ‘the police took great precautions to prevent a breach of the peace’, ‘as a sequel to the cane charge by the police on a Mehndi procession the Moslems ... did not celebrate the Muharram today. No ta’zia processions were taken out ... Business was transacted as usual in the Hindu localities’, ‘Bomb thrown on procession’. Not all of these disturbances spring from sectarian differences, but those differences actuate many fracases. Birdwood says that, in Bombay, where the first four days of Muharram are likely to be devoted to visiting each other's tabut khanas, women and children as well as men are admitted, and members of other communities – only the Sunnies are denied ‘simply as a police precaution".[44]
China
Most foreign slaves in
The Sunni Muslim cleric
Modern times
Bangladesh
There is limited documentation violence against Shias in Bangladesh in English. For example, on 24 October 2015 a bomb exploded at a Shia mosque, resulting in one person dead and many more injured.[48] Another deadly attack took place at Haripur in Shibganj, in Bogra. The Muezzin was shot dead at a Shiite mosque, and at least four other men, including the imam, were injured.[49]
Bahrain
A majority of
2011 uprising
Since the
Apartheid
Discrimination against Shia Muslims in Bahrain is severe and systematic enough for a number of sources (
etc.) to have used the term "apartheid" in their descriptions of it.Writing in the Daily Mirror, Ameen Izzadeen asserts that
after the dismantling of the apartheid regime in South Africa, Bahrain remained the only country where a minority dictated terms to a majority. More than 70 percent of the Bahrainis are Shiite Muslims, but they have little or no say in the government.[59]
The Christian Science Monitor describes Bahrain as practicing
a form of sectarian apartheid by not allowing Shiites to hold key government posts or serve in the police or military. In fact, the security forces are staffed by Sunnis from Syria, Pakistan, and Baluchistan who also get fast-tracked to Bahraini citizenship, much to the displeasure of the indigenous Shiite population whose members are often considered non Muslims or lesser Muslims because they are Shias.[60][61]
Egypt
Shia activists claim that more than one million Shias live in Egypt, however, other sources claim that only a few thousand Shias live in Egypt.[62] Estimated numbers of Egypt's Shias range from 800,000[63] to about two to three million, however, there is no official count.[64][65]
The Egyptian government began to focus its attention on Shiites during the presidency of Hosni Mubarak in order to build better relations with the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. Shia activists in Egypt have also claimed that when the Muslim Brotherhood was in power in Egypt in 2013, the government espoused anti-Shiism, seeing it as a religious duty, however, some Salafist groups accused the Muslim Brotherhood of not doing enough to stop the spread of Shiism. Another Shiite activist claimed that during Mubarak's presidency, he was arrested, held for 15 months and tortured by the Egyptian State Security Investigations Service.[62]
India
India is a
The city of Lucknow has a history of violence between the Shia and Sunni sects during the Shia festival of Muharram, usually due to actions by the Sunnis which are considered offensive to Shias. During Muharram, Sunni clerics organize rituals praising the first three caliphs of Islam (madh-e sahaba), while deliberately excluding Ali, the fourth caliph and these are usually held in front of Shia mosques or as a response to Shia Muharram processions.[67] Members of the Sunni sect are also known to block Shia processions passing through Sunni areas, causing tensions between the two sects.[68] Sunnis have also declared them as non Muslims[69] on various occasions through official fatwas,[70] however they mean little as Indian government recognises Shias as Muslims.[71][72][73]
Indonesia
On 29 December 2011, in Nangkrenang,
Additionally, there is also a corresponding anti-Shi'ist organization, National Anti-Shia Alliance (ANNAS), which was founded on 20 April 2014.[77]
Malaysia
Malaysia bans Shias from promoting their faith.[78] Sixteen Shias were arrested on 24 September 2013 for "spreading" their faith.[79]
Iraq
Prior to 2003, the Sunni-Shia dynamics was more of a national difference than a religious one.[80]
Following the
After the U.S. withdrawal from Iraq in 2011, Sunnis went out in
Nigeria
Members of the Nigerian Shia community have been persecuted in different ways including demolition of Shia mosques, targeted killings and anti-Shia propaganda.[83][84][85] Saudi Arabian-linked Sunni politicians, organizations and Nigerian security apparatus are behind the persecution of Shia Muslims in Nigeria.[83] The Salafist movement Izala Society, is close to both Riyadh and Abuja and its satellite television channel Manara often broadcasts anti-Shiite sectarian propaganda.[85]
The state government of Sokoto has reacted to the rise of Shia Islam in the state by taking such measures as demolishing the Islamic Center in 2007.
In 2014, the Zaria Quds Day massacres took place, leaving 35 dead. In 2015, the Zaria massacre during which 348 Shia Muslims were killed by the Nigerian Army.[89]
In April 2018, clashes broke out as Nigerian police fired
In October 2018, Nigerian military killed at least 45 peaceful Shia protesters.[91][92] After soldiers began to fire, they targeted protesters fleeing the chaos. Many of the injured were shot in the back or legs.[93]
On 26 July 2019, A Nigerian court imposed an activities ban on the Shia Islamic Movement because of “acts of terrorism and illegality”. Anietie Ewang, Nigeria researcher at Human Rights Watch declared that “The sweeping court ruling against the Shia movement threatens the basic human rights of all Nigerians.”[94]
Pakistan
Shia Muslim civilians were victims of unprovoked hate since the beginning of Pakistan. With the
Over 1,900 Shias were killed in bomb blasts or targeted gun attacks from 2012 to May 2015 alone.[95]
The violence has claimed lives of thousands of men, women and children. Shia make up 10% of the Muslim population in Pakistan. However they are mostly excluded from positions of power.
On 16 August 2012, some 25 Shia passengers were pulled out of four buses on Babusar road, when they were going home to celebrate Eid with their families. That was the third attack on Shia in six months.[99] They were summarily executed by Al-Qaeda affiliated Sunni Muslim militants.[98] On the same day, three Hazara community members were shot dead in Pakistan's southwestern town of Quetta.[100] Sunni extremists, aligned with Al-Qaeda and the Taliban, yearly are killing Shia civilians by the hundreds in Pakistan.
The sole purpose of some terrorist groups such as Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan is to cleanse Pakistan of Shia Muslims. On 26 June 2018, government of Pakistan lifted ban on Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan, unfroze its assets and removed its notorious leader from terrorist watch list.[101][102]
In September 2020, Pakistan's extremist Sunni Muslim group accused the indigenous Shias of being non-Muslims and heretics who spread fitna. The hashtag "infidel, infidel, Shias are infidel" was trended on campaigns were launching.[103] Thousand of Pakistanis marched for an anti-Shia protests in Karachi, the country's financial hub, during early September 2020. The march was caused due to Shia clergies making disparaging remarks against historical Islamic figures. The remarks were televised during the Shia Ashura procession. Ashura commemorates the Battle of Karbala, which caused the schism in Islam. Sunni groups demanded that disparaging remarks against any Islamic figures were not acceptable and will not be tolerated.[104]
Saudi Arabia
In modern-day
There are no Shia religious seminaries in Saudi Arabia, so the training of Shia scholars is restricted. Also, the building of the Shia mosques is prohibited in some regions of Saudi Arabia.[108]
Unlike
The government has restricted the names that Shias can use for their children in an attempt to discourage them from showing their identity. Saudi textbooks are hostile to Shiism often characterizing the faith as a form of heresy.[3] Salafi teachers frequently tell classrooms full of young Shia schoolchildren that they are heretics.[109]
In the city of
In March 2011, police opened fire on peaceful protesters in Qatif, and after Shia unrest in October 2011 the Saudi government promised to crush any further trouble in the eastern province with an "iron fist".[112]
Saudi Arabia continues its anti-Shia campaign both domestically and abroad. According to the Independent, "Satellite television, internet, YouTube and Twitter content, frequently emanating from or financed by oil states in the Arabian peninsula, are at the centre of a campaign to spread sectarian hatred to every corner of the Muslim world, including places where Shia are a vulnerable minority, such as Libya, Tunisia, Egypt and Malaysia."[113]
Saudi Arabia's policy towards non-Wahhabi forms of religious expression has been described as religious apartheid.[114] Mohammad Taqi writes that
The Saudi regime is also acutely aware that, in the final analysis, the Shiite grievances are not merely doctrinal issues but stem from socioeconomic deprivation, as a result of religious repression and political marginalization bordering on apartheid.[115]
In January 2016, Saudi Arabia executed the prominent Shiite cleric
Since May 2017[117][118][119][120][121] in response to protests against the government, the predominantly Shia town of Al-Awamiyah has been put under full siege by the Saudi military. Residents are not allowed to enter or leave, and the military indiscriminately shells the neighborhoods with airstrikes, mortar[122] fire along with snipers[123] shooting residents.[124] Dozens of Shia civilians were killed, includinga a three-year-old and[125] a two-year-old children.[126] The Saudi government claims it is fighting terrorists in al-Awamiyah. Residents also reported soldiers shooting at homes, cars and everyone in streets.[127] During the crackdown the Saudi government demolished several historical sites and many other buildings and houses in Qatif.[128] On 26 July 2017, Saudi authorities began refusing to give emergency services to wounded civilians. Saudi Arabia has also not provided humanitarian help to trapped citizens of Awamiyah.[129] In August 2017, it was reported that the Saudi government demolished 488 buildings in Awamiyah. This demolition came from a siege of the city by the Saudi government, as it continued to try to prevent the citizens of the city from gaining their rights.[130] 20,000 residents were forced to flee from their homes to survive.[131] President of Quran Council and two cousins of executed Nimr al-Nimr were also killed by Saudi security forces in Qatif in 2017.[132]
Khomeini governed Iran based on Islamic rule. He supported Shia in other countries including Lebanon, Iraq, Afghanistan, Bahrain, and Pakistan to strengthen the Sunni-Shia union. Khomeini's efforts were respected by Sunni Islamists, such as the Muslim Brotherhood and Hamas who "didn't accept his leadership".After the victory of the Iranian revolution and the establishment of the Shia power in Iran, Saudi Arabia tried to spread Wahhabism globally. The Iraqi military was supported by Saudi Arabia against Iranian Shia from 1980 to 1988.[5]
Two decades ago, extremist groups have gotten financial support from Saudi Arabia and the Gulf states and they were able to speared propaganda and attract recruits by satellite television and high-speed Internet.[5]
Yemen
Although 35% of Yemenis are Shia, discrimination against Shia has been omnipresent in Yemen. It was mostly practiced by the Sunnis, which made up 65% of Yemeni population. This had led to the rise of
See also
- Anti-Iranian sentiment
- Anti-Sunnism
- Counter-jihad
- Criticism of Islam
- Criticism of Islamism
- Genocide of Christians by the Islamic State
- Genocide of Yazidis by the Islamic State
- Islamophobia
- Iran-Saudi Arabia proxy conflict
- Persecution of minority Muslim groups
- Persecution of Muslims
Persecution of Shia Muslims by Sunnis:
- Imam Reza shrine stabbings
- Dujail Massacre
- 1991 Iraqi uprisings
- Persecution of Hazara people
- Persecution of Kashmiri Shias
- Persecution of Shias by the Islamic State
- Salafi movement
- International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism
- Salafi jihadism
- Sunni fatwas on Shias
- Wahhabism
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{{cite news}}
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