Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf

Abu Muhammad al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf ibn al-Hakam ibn Abi Aqil al-Thaqafi (

As governor of Iraq and the east, al-Hajjaj instituted key reforms. Among these were the minting of silver dirhams with strictly Muslim religious formulas instead of the coins' traditional, pre-Islamic Sasanian design; changing the language of the diwan (tax registers) of Iraq from Persian to Arabic; and the introduction of a uniform version of the Quran. To revive agricultural production and increase tax revenue, al-Hajjaj expelled non-Arab, Muslim converts from the garrison cities of Kufa and Basra to their villages of origin and collected from them the jizya (poll tax) nominally reserved for non-Muslim subjects, and oversaw large-scale canal digging projects. In 701, al-Hajjaj, with reinforcements from Syria, crushed a mass rebellion led by the Kufan Arab nobleman Ibn al-Ash'ath whose ranks spanned the Arab troops, Muslim converts and religious elites of Iraq. Consequently, al-Hajjaj further tightened control over the province, founding the city of Wasit to house the loyalist Syrian troops whom he thereafter relied on to enforce his rule.

Al-Hajjaj was a highly capable though ruthless statesman, strict in character, and a harsh and demanding master. Widely feared by his contemporaries, he became a deeply controversial figure and an object of deep-seated enmity among later, pro-

Ancestry

Al-Hajjaj was born in ca. 661 in the city of

As a boy, al-Hajjaj acquired the nickname Kulayb ('little dog'), with which he was later derisively referred to.[5] His early life is obscure, except for his having been a schoolmaster in his hometown—another source of derision to his enemies—where he taught his pupils to copy and recite the Quran.^[6] His father Yusuf ibn al-Hakam and elder brother Muhammad were also teachers in Ta'if.^[6]

After a short, undetermined period, al-Hajjaj and his father left their teaching jobs and took up military service under Caliph

In early 694, Abd al-Malik sent al-Hajjaj to govern Iraq.

Al-Hajjaj was, in the words of A. Dietrich, "the most loyal servant that a dynasty could wish for", and his loyalty was reciprocated by Abd al-Malik with his full trust.^[20] The relationship was further strengthened through family ties: al-Hajjaj's daughter wed Masrur, a son of al-Walid, while the daughter of his brother Muhammad was wed to the future caliph Yazid II (r. 720–724); the latter named his first-born son after al-Hajjaj, who in turn named three of his sons after members of the dynasty.^[21] Abd al-Malik also named one of his sons al-Hajjaj.^[22] This close relationship is further evidenced by the many surviving letters exchanged between al-Hajjaj and Abd al-Malik.^[21] Al-Hajjaj's relationship with the latter was much different than with al-Walid, with whom the correspondence was restricted to their official functions. On the other hand, while Abd al-Malik was able to restrain his over-zealous governor whenever he was "extortionate in the raising of taxes, was too liberal with public resources, or was shedding more blood than was necessary" (A. Dietrich), al-Walid considered himself in al-Hajjaj's debt because he had championed the succession of al-Walid against Abd al-Malik's brother Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan, and the new Caliph allowed his powerful governor free rein and relied heavily on his counsel even in the appointment and dismissal of officials.^[23] If his meddling in the succession had secured him the favour of al-Walid, it had also caused the declared enmity of al-Walid's brother Sulayman (r. 715–717). Sulayman furthermore had championed the cause of Yazid ibn al-Muhallab, whom al-Hajjaj had imprisoned. The possibility of Sulayman's accession so frightened al-Hajjaj that he wished not to outlive al-Walid.^[24]

Ibn al-Ash'ath's revolt and aftermath

Arriving at Kufa, al-Hajjaj gave an inaugural sermon at the local mosque that has become famous and is "often cited as an example of Arab eloquence" (G. R. Hawting).

Ibn al-Ash'ath led his army to Sistan, and, as Dietrich writes, "at first carried out his campaign carefully and according to orders; he pacified each territory as it was conquered, ensured supplies and accustomed his troops gradually to the different climatic conditions". Al-Hajjaj, however, sent letter after letter to his commander, demanding an immediate assault against the Zunbil. The tone of these letters was extremely offensive, and he threatened to dismiss Ibn al-Ash'ath and appoint his brother Ishaq to command the expedition instead. Al-Hajjaj's harsh tone and unreasonable demands, as well as the army's evident reluctance to continue such a protracted and arduous campaign so far from their homes, provoked a widespread mutiny, led by Ibn al-Ash'ath.[29]^[30] The rebel army marched back to Iraq, growing to over 100,000 strong in the process as they were joined by other malcontents. It transformed from a mutiny against al-Hajjaj—denounced as an enemy of God and a latter-day Pharaoh—to a full-blown anti-Umayyad movement.^[27][31]

Al-Hajjaj tried to stop the rebels at Tustar, but the rebels were victorious (early 701). Al-Hajjaj abandoned Basra to the rebels, and Ibn al-Ash'ath entered the city in triumph. Reinforced with Syrian troops, al-Hajjaj managed to score a minor victory, after which the bulk of the rebel army left Basra for their natural stronghold, Kufa. Al-Hajjaj recaptured Basra and pursued Ibn al-Ash'ath to Kufa, encamping near the city. Ibn al-Ash'ath's progress had sufficiently alarmed the Umayyad court that they sought a negotiated settlement, even though they kept sending Syrian reinforcements to al-Hajjaj. Abd al-Malik offered to dismiss al-Hajjaj, appoint Ibn al-Ash'ath as governor over one of the Iraqi towns, and raise the Iraqis' pay so that they received the same amount as the Syrians. Ibn al-Ash'ath was inclined to accept, but the more radical of his followers, especially the scholars known as qurrāʾ, refused, believing that the offered terms revealed the government's weakness, and pushed for outright victory. The two armies met in the Battle of Dayr al-Jamajim in April 701, and al-Hajjaj and his more disciplined Syrians scored a crushing victory. Kufa surrendered afterward, and al-Hajjaj further undercut Ibn al-Ash'ath's support by promising amnesty to those who surrendered, providing however that they acknowledged that their rebellion had been tantamount to renouncing Islam; those who refused were executed.^[27][31] The remnants of the rebel army fled to Basra, but were soon evicted and pursued by the Syrians to Khuzistan and Sistan. There Ibn al-Ash'ath sought refuge with the Zunbil, but was either assassinated by the latter or committed suicide to avoid being surrendered to al-Hajjaj. Most of his remaining followers tried to reach Herat, but were defeated by al-Muhallab's son, Yazid ibn al-Muhallab, who surrendered those of north Arab provenance (Mudaris) but let the southern Arab (Yamani) go.^[27][32]

The failure of Ibn al-Ash'ath's revolt led to the tightening of Umayyad control over Iraq. In 702 al-Hajjaj founded the city of Wasit, situated midway between Basra and Kufa, where he moved his seat. There he gathered all Syrian troops present in Iraq, ostensibly in order to rein in the Syrians and prevent excess at the expense of the populace, but in reality his aim was to isolate the Syrians from the locals and solidify their loyalty to him. Henceforth, Iraq passed under virtual Syrian occupation, and the Iraqis, regardless of social status, were deprived of any real power in the governance of the region.^[20][33] Al-Hajjaj was now the undisputed master not only of Iraq, but of the entire Islamic East; only the governor of Khurasan, Yazid ibn al-Muhallab, retained some autonomy. Although Yazid was able to refuse several summons to Wasit, finally in 704 al-Hajjaj persuaded the Caliph to dismiss him, and Yazid was imprisoned.^[20]

Campaigns of expansion

As governor of Iraq and viceroy of the East, al-Hajjaj supervised a major wave of expansion. He appointed his kinsman

Already in 695, al-Hajjaj began minting the new gold and silver coins, which superseded the Byzantine and

Sasanian coins still used until then. He established mints at Kufa and later in Wasit and decreed strict punishments for counterfeiters. The new coins contained the name of Allah, and hence were initially opposed by many theologians who argued that they would also be used by infidels, but they quickly became a success and "helped to promote the circulation of money and the stabilization of economic conditions" (Dietrich).^[20] Al-Hajjaj also ordered the translation of the tax registers (diwan) into Arabic from the Persian in which it had hitherto been kept, so that he could supervise it personally.^[20]

Following his victory over the Iraqis, al-Hajjaj began a series of reforms aimed at restoring tranquility and prosperity to the troubled province after almost twenty years of civil war and rebellions.[20] He invested much effort in reviving agriculture, especially in the Sawad, and thereby increasing revenue through the kharaj (land tax). He began to restore and expand the network of canals in lower Iraq. According to the 9th-century historian al-Baladhuri, he spared no expense to repair embankments when they broke, awarded uncultivated lands to deserving Arabs, and took measures to reverse the flow of the rural population to the cities, especially the new converts (mawali).^[20] According to the 9th-century historian Ibn Abd al-Hakam, al-Hajjaj, with the support of Abd al-Malik, was the first to collect the jizya (poll tax) from the mawali, despite its imposition being traditionally restricted to the non-Muslim subjects of the Caliphate.^[35]

Uniformity of the Quran and grammatical reforms

As part of his efforts to strengthen uniformity in the state, he also tried to introduce a definitive, uniform version of the

Ibn Mas'ud's qira'a (lit. 'readings').^[20] On the other hand, a number of authors argue that it is difficult to assess any role had by al-Hajjaj, though they argue for the plausibility of a widely known account that has him ordering the grammarian and qari Nasr ibn Asim al-Laythi to introduce new vowel diacritics, a story that is unchallenged, despite the strong hostility of Muslim sources towards al-Hajjaj.^[36][37][38]

The orientalist

Umar II.^[39] Jefferey notes the authenticity of the letter is disputed by historians, including John Wansbrough, who denied that Levond had reported it.^[39][38] Neal Robinson argues that even if the letter was authentic, the activity of al-Hajjaj would have been limited to destroying sectarian writings and early codices which preserved the suras (Quranic chapters) in a different order.^[37] The other Christian source is an apologetic letter attributed to Abd al-Masih al-Kindi. The dating of the letter is disputed, the Arabist Paul Kraus concluding that its composition dated to the beginning of the 10th century.^[42] Moreover, other authors have rejected that the letter had any factual basis, arguing that it was a polemical work.^[36]

According to the Islamic historical tradition, in c. 700, al-Hajjaj improved written Arabic by adding diacritical marks to the bare rasm ('script') of early "defective" Arabic so that consonants such as these five letters ـبـ ـتـ ـثـ ـنـ ـيـ (y, n, th, t, b) could be distinguished from one another. However, some historians believe these language reforms occurred earlier in Syria or Iraq before the advent of Islam.^[43]

Death and legacy

Al-Hajjaj died in Wasit in May or June 714 at the age of 53 or 54.^[44] On his deathbed, he appointed his son Abd Allah to replace him as leader of the Friday prayers.^[44] He penned a letter to al-Walid, which concluded as follows:

When I meet God and find favour with Him, therein shall be the joy of my soul. The eternity of God sufficeth me, and I therefore place not my hopes on mortals. Those who were before us have tasted of death, and after them we also shall taste it.

The cause of his death, according to the 13th-century historian Ibn Khallikan, was a stomach cancer.^[45] The following year, al-Walid died as well, and his brother Sulayman came to power. As the heir apparent, Sulayman had allied with many of al-Hajjaj's opponents, particularly Yazid ibn al-Muhallab, whom he appointed governor of Iraq shortly after his accession.^[46][47] Possibly having been convinced by such allies that al-Hajjaj had provoked hatred among the Iraqis toward the Umayyads as opposed to fostering their loyalty, the caliph deposed the late viceroy's appointees and allies in the province and throughout the eastern Caliphate. This was likely due to their connection with al-Hajjaj personally.^[48] Among those who fell from grace was Muhammad ibn al-Qasim, who was dismissed from his governorship of Sindh and executed in Wasit.^[49]

In the assessment of the historian Julius Wellhausen, al-Hajjaj was "harsh and at times hard, but not cruel; neither was he petty or bigoted".^[50] Though he was criticized in the early Muslim sources for his bombardment of Mecca and the Ka'aba during his siege of Ibn al-Zubayr, "other shameful deeds" al-Hajjaj was held responsible for are the "inventions and fabrications of the hatred of his enemies".^[51] Among these was a charge by an anonymous source recorded by al-Tabari that al-Hajjaj massacred between 11,000 and 130,000 men in Basra following his suppression of Ibn al-Ash'ath's revolt, in contrast to the older traditional Muslim sources, which held that al-Hajjaj granted a general pardon in Kufa and Basra after his victory for rebels who renounced Ibn al-Ash'ath.^[51]

Family

Al-Hajjaj's first wife was Umm Aban, a daughter of

Ibn Abd Rabbihi and Ibn al-Athir hold that Abd al-Malik ordered al-Hajjaj to divorce her and return her dowry after petitions by her father and the Umayyad prince Khalid ibn Yazid ibn Mu'awiya; the modern historian Shiv Rai Chowdhry argues the latter account is more credible.^[56] During his rule in Iraq, al-Hajjaj married Hind, a daughter of al-Muhallab, but according to the historian al-Tabari, divorced her in 708/09 because she cried audibly at the torture of her brother Yazid in al-Hajjaj's prison.^[53] With his marriage to Umm Banin bint al-Mughira ibn Abd al-Rahman, a great-granddaughter of al-Harith ibn Hisham, al-Hajjaj became one of the few non-Qurayshites to marry into the aristocratic Banu Makhzum clan; two of his sons also married into the clan.^[57]

According to the historian Ibn Hazm (d. 1064), al-Hajjaj had four sons: his eldest Muhammad, and Abd al-Malik, Aban and Sulayman (or al-Walid).^[58][22] The latter three were named after members of the Umayyad dynasty.^[22] Al-Tabari mentions a son named Abd Allah.^[44] Muhammad died during al-Hajjaj's lifetime and his descendants were recorded living in Damascus as late as the 9th century. Abd al-Malik also had descendants recorded living in the 9th century, in Basra, while Aban and Sulayman (or al-Walid) died without progeny.^[22]

References

1. ^ ^{a b} Dietrich 1971, pp. 39–40.
2. ^ ^{a b c} Baloch 1953, p. 243.
3. ^ Gabrieli 1965, p. 282.
4. ^ Lecker 2000, p. 432.
5. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t} Dietrich 1971, p. 40.
6. ^ ^{a b} Chowdhry 1972, p. 4.
7. ^ Chowdhry 1972, pp. 8–9.
8. ^ ^{a b} Chowdhry 1972, p. 9.
9. ^ Biesterfeldt & Günther 2018, p. 953.
10. ^ ^{a b} Oseni 1982, p. 129.
11. ^ Crone 1980, p. 124.
12. ^ Chowdhry 1972, p. 12.
13. ^ Chowdhry 1972, pp. 12–13.
14. ^ Chowdhry 1972, pp. 13–14.
15. ^ Dixon 1971, p. 93.
16. ^ ^{a b} Kennedy 2004, p. 100.
17. ^ ^{a b} Blankinship 1994, pp. 57–67.
18. ^ Kennedy 2007, pp. 241–242.
19. ^ Hawting 2000, p. 58.
20. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j} Dietrich 1971, p. 41.
21. ^ ^{a b} Dietrich 1971, pp. 41–42.
22. ^ ^{a b c d} Chowdhry 1972, p. 155.
23. ^ Dietrich 1971, pp. 41, 42.
24. ^ Dietrich 1971, p. 42.
25. ^ Hawting 2000, p. 66.
26. ^ ^{a b} Crone 1993, p. 357.
27. ^ ^{a b c d e} Kennedy 2004, p. 101.
28. ^ Hawting 2000, p. 67.
29. ^ Dietrich 1971, pp. 40–41.
30. ^ Hawting 2000, pp. 67–68.
31. ^ ^{a b} Hawting 2000, pp. 68–69.
32. ^ Hawting 2000, p. 69.
33. ^ Kennedy 2004, p. 102.
34. ^ Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg: The Chachnamah, An Ancient History of Sind, Giving the Hindu period down to the Arab Conquest. Commissioners Press 1900, Section 18 [1] Archived 19 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine
35. ^ Crone 1994, p. 14.
36. ^ ^{a b c} Beeston, Johnstone & Serjeant 1983, p. 243.
37. ^ ^{a b} Robinson 1996, p. 56.
38. ^ ^{a b} Wansbrough 1978, p. 156.
39. ^ ^{a b c} Jeffrey 1952, pp. 99–120.
40. ^ ^{a b c} Radwan 1992, p. 430.
41. ^ McAuliffe 2006, p. 166.
42. ^ Troupeau 1986, p. 120.
43. ^ Donner 2008, pp. 35–36.
44. ^ ^{a b c} Hinds 1990, p. 216.
45. ^ De Slane 1842, p. 362.
46. ^ Kennedy 2004, p. 92.
47. ^ Wellhausen 1927, pp. 257–258.
48. ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 260.
49. ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 258.
50. ^ Wellhausen 1927, p. 255.
51. ^ ^{a b} Wellhausen 1927, p. 256.
52. ^ Chowdhry 1972, pp. 51, 152.
53. ^ ^{a b} Chowdhry 1972, p. 152.
54. ^ Chowdhry 1972, pp. 34, 151–152.
55. ^ Chowdhry 1972.
56. ^ Chowdhry 1972, pp. 33–34.
57. ^ Hinds 1991, p. 139.
58. ^ Baloch 1953, p. 249.

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Further reading

• Klasova, Pamela (2022). "A Tyrant's Legacy in Medieval Syria: Al-Ḥajjāj b. Yūsuf on Trial in Ibn ʿAsākir's History of Damascus". Journal of Late Antique, Islamic and Byzantine Studies. 1 (1–2): 133–166.

Preceded by Bishr ibn Marwan	Governor of Iraq 694–714	Succeeded by Yazid ibn Abi Kabshah al-Saksaki
Preceded by Tariq ibn Amr	Governor of Medina 693–694	Succeeded by Yahya ibn al-Hakam