User:Chorinea/Sandbox
Canarium indicum | |
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Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae
|
Division: | Magnoliophyta
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Class: | Magnoliopsida
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Order: | Sapindales
|
Family: | Burseraceae
|
Genus: | Canarium
|
Species: | Canarium indicum
|
Synonyms | |
Canarium nut, blume Galip, Canarium Almond, Galip, java Almond, Java Olive, Kanari, Nangai Nut, Ngali Nut, galip nut, nangai, ngali ngali nut |
Canarium indicum
Canarium indicum is a mainly
Cultivars
Canarium indicum has two recognised botanical varieties: indicum and platycerioideum. The latter is uncommon and grows in
Origin and regions of cultivation
Canarium is native in eastern
Nuts have been important in the diet in Papua New Guinea for about 6’000 years. In 2007, approximately one third of the household grew Canarium. In the Solomon Islands, they are important in traditional society, with the ownership of trees being a measure of wealth. [3]
Growth
Development and physiology
Canarium indicum is an
- Leaves are bright green acuminate with sub-undulating and possess entire margin. Pseudostipules, however, are persistent, large, leafy, ovate and serrate-dentate with fringed margins. [2]
- Canarium flowers are small, around 1 cm across, yellowish-white and arise in terminal pedicels. [2]
- Its fruits are ovoid to elliptic-oblong. They measure 3–6 cm× 2–3 cm, generally have a green color and turn to deep dark, black or blue-black when they ripe. [2]
- The nut found in the shell is stony, hard and can be rounded or 3-6 sided in cross section. [2]
- Kernels are usually
The flowering period lasts only about 2 weeks and is followed by a long gestation of 6 to 9 months. [4]
Life form
In Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, the Canarium is dioecious. In Vanuatu, trees may also grow either hermaphrodite flowers plus female female or hermaphrodite flowers plus male flowers. [1]
Cultivation
Soil requirements
Canarium prefers medium to heavy textured soils, like
Seedbed requirements and sowing
Seedlings should be planted into well prepared holes in which
Climate requirements
Canarium is mainly found in wet
Cultivation management & fertilization
Fertilizer applications of 360 g
Pests and diseases
Canarium appears not to be highly susceptible to damage by any particular pest or disease.[1] Canarium cultivation has produced various cultivars with inherent pest and disease resistance, which could be used in breeding programs. The hard and non-perishable shell protects kernels from verminand pathogens. [4]
Yield
Harvested organs are the fruits. They consist of the outer skin (
Harvest and postharvest treatment
Traditionally, the harvesting of Canarium is of great social importance. Rights to harvest individual trees are traded within and amongst clans. Fruits can either be picked up from the ground or harvested directly from the trees. The fruiting season in Papua New Guinea lasts from May to July and in Vanuatu from October to January. In the Solomon Islands the production peak is between September and October. [1] Nut picking can last for 2–4 months, thus the area under the tree is typically kept clean and fallen fruits can be easily collected.[5] Harvesting from the tree by breaking off the fruiting branchlets has been found to be beneficial as it encourages renewed growth and flowering. [3]
The processing of the seeds consists mainly in removing the shell and drying kernels directly on farm by smoking to allow a stable storage for months.
As the phenonolgy of Canarium is determined by the day length, the ones growing in lower latitudes flower and fruit earlier than those in the higher latitudes. [4] Yield is estimated to be 4-7 t kernel-in-testa per hectare per year. [1] In the Solomon Islands, nut yields were found to vary from 80 to 320 kg nut-in-shell per tree, with an average on a healthy tree of at least 100 kg nut-in-shell (15 kg kernel) per year. [5] Total production of Canarium in western Melanesia with 2 million trees is estimated to be more than 100’000 t of nuts-in-shell (16’000 t of kernels-in-testa with 16% kernel content) per year. [4]
Products
Products uses and processing technology
Many parts of the tree can be used. In Melanesia, except for Fiji, kernels are important in the local diet as fat and protein suppliers.[2] [4] Kernels are eaten raw, baked or roasted, used as a snack or added to other food, such as staple root crops, soups or even crushed and used as ice-cream toppings. Depending on the regions, they can also be used in different ways, like added to megapode eggs in the Solomon Islands or mixed with tuber puddings in Vanuatu. [2] However, taste can vary from unpalatable bitter to a soft delicate coconut butter taste and is sensible to the processing technique. [4]
Kernel oil is mainly used for cooking as a substitute to coconut oil or blended with other oils. It also serves as a medicinal product. It can be used in cosmetic and skin care products[2], in which anti-aging and anti-inflammatory agents of Canarium oil can stimulate tensin 1 expression [7] and are thus effective against wrinkles and loss of skin firmness. [2] In the past, the kernel oil was used as a lighter and to prevent and treat arthritis. [2]
The testa can be added in animal feed.[2]
The
Shells can be used as bedding for
The bark is used in the western Solomon Islands in traditional medicine against chest pain. [4]
The resinous trunk extrudate is used in caulking of canoes.[2]
Nutritive vale and special compounds
Table 1: Nutritive value of Canarium nut [8]
Nutrients | Quantity per 100 g edible portion |
Fat | 45.9 g |
Water | 35.4 g |
Fibre
|
10.6 g |
Protein | 8.2 g |
Starch | 0.3 g |
Sugar | 0.2 g |
Ash | 2.6 g |
Potassium | 627 mg |
Magnesium | 284 mg |
Calcium | 44 mg |
Sodium | 18 mg |
Vitamin C | 8 mg |
Iron | 3.5 mg |
Zinc | 2.4 mg |
Niacin | 1.7 mg |
Copper | 1.6 mg |
Manganese | 1.1 mg |
Thiamin
|
0.13 mg |
Riboflavin | 0.06 mg |
ꞵ-carotene equivalent | 165 μg |
Nutritive value of a raw Canarium per 100g edible portion (kernels without the hard shell) is 439 kcal/1.838 kJ energy.
In a study led in various areas of
Canarium kernels seem to possess anti-inflammatory activity through inhibition properties of its
Breeding
Local varieties have been developed through selection of trees based on the kernel taste and size,
Commercialization
Commercial processing and marketing started in the Solomon Islands in 1989. [4] Since the early 1990s, a number of projects aimed to increase the commercialization of Canarium indicum, with mixed success. The first commercial products of Canarium indicum in Papua New Guinea were launched in July 2018. This market-testing phase was a part of a project of the Australian Centre of International Agricultural Research (ACIAR).[3] Products are available in local supermarkets and duty-free stores in Papua New Guinea in three variants: roasted, peeled or natural. [13]
Prices for nuts-in-shell are around 0.30 US$/kg and 3 US$/kg for processed kernels. [4]
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Thomson, L. A. J. & Evans, B. Canarium indicum var. indicum and C. harveyi (canarium nut). Tradit. Trees Pacific Islands Their Cult. Environ. Use 209–226 (2006).
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Lim, T. K. Canarium indicum. in Edible Medicinal and Non-Medicinal Plants 619–623 (Springer, 2012).
- ^ a b c d e Nevenimo, T. et al. Domestication potential and marketing of Canarium indicum nuts in the Pacific: 1. A literature review. Agrofor. Syst. 69, 117–134 (2007).
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Bourke, R. Indigenous edible nuts in Papua New Guinea. in 84–98 (2010).
- ^ a b c Evans, B. R. The agronomy on Ngali nut (Canarium spp.) in Solomon Islands. Res. Bull. (1991).
- ^ Walton, D. A. et al. Shelf life of tropical Canarium nut stored under ambient conditions. Horticulturae 3, 24 (2017).
- ^ Maestro, Y., Saintigny, G. & Bernard, F. X. Cosmetic use of an active agent capable of stimulating tensin 1 expression (2009).
- ^ a b c Aalbersberg, W. G. L., English, R. M. & Scheelings, P. Pacific Island foods: description and nutrient composition of 78 local foods. (1996).
- ^ a b c Leakey, R. et al. Characterization of tree-to-tree variation in morphological, nutritional and medicinal properties of Canarium indicum nuts. Agrofor. Syst. 73, 77–87 (2008).
- ^ Howes, F. N. Nuts, their production and everyday uses. Nuts, their Prod. everyday uses. (1948).
- ^ Macrae, R., Robinson, R. K. & Sadler, M. J. Encyclopaedia of food science, food technology, and nutrition. (Academic Press, 1993).
- ^ Sten, E. et al. Allergenic components of a novel food, Micronesian nut Nangai (Canarium indicum), shows IgE cross‐reactivity in pollen allergic patients. Allergy 57, 398–404 (2002).
- ^ Yargop, R. Papua New Guinea’s ‘Galip Nut’ commercialised. The centre for global food and resources (2018). Available at: https://blogs.adelaide.edu.au/global-food/2018/07/31/papua-new-guineas-galip-nut-commercialised/. (Accessed: 5th November 2020)