Vanuatu
Republic of Vanuatu
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Motto: "Long God yumi stanap" (Bislama) Nous nous tenons devant Dieu (French) "With God we stand" Ethnic groups (2020)
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Religion (2020)[3] |
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Demonym(s) | Ni-Vanuatu (or rarely: Vanuatuan) | |
Government | Unitary parliamentary republic | |
Nikenike Vurobaravu | ||
Charlot Salwai | ||
Legislature | Parliament | |
Independence | ||
• from the United Kingdom and France | 30 July 1980 | |
• Admitted to the United Nations | 15 September 1981 | |
+678 | ||
ISO 3166 code | VU | |
Internet TLD | .vu |
Vanuatu (English:
Vanuatu was first inhabited by
In the 1880s, France and the United Kingdom claimed parts of the archipelago, and in 1906, they agreed on a framework for jointly managing the archipelago as the New Hebrides through an Anglo-French condominium.
An independence movement arose in the 1970s, and the Republic of Vanuatu was founded in 1980. Since independence, the country has become a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, and the Pacific Islands Forum.
Etymology
Vanuatu's name derives from the word
History
Prehistory
The history of Vanuatu before European colonisation is mostly obscure because of the lack of written sources up to that point, and because only limited archaeological work has been conducted; Vanuatu's volatile geology and climate is also likely to have destroyed or hidden many prehistoric sites.[12] Archaeological evidence gathered since the 1980s supports the theory that the Vanuatuan islands were first settled about 3,000 years ago, in the period roughly between 1100 BCE and 700 BCE.[12][13] These were almost certainly people of the Lapita culture. The formerly widespread idea that Vanuatu might have been only marginally affected by this culture was rendered obsolete by the evidence uncovered in recent decades at numerous sites on most of the islands in the archipelago, ranging from the Banks Islands in the north to Aneityum in the south.[12]
Notable Lapita sites include
The stories about Roy Mata come from local oral tradition and are consistent with centuries-old evidence uncovered at archaeological sites.[15] The Lapita sites became Vanuatu's first UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2008.[16][17]
The immediate origins of the Lapita lay to the northwest, in the Solomon Islands and the Bismarck Archipelago of Papua New Guinea,[12] though DNA studies of a 3,000-year-old skeleton found near Port Vila in 2016 indicates that some may have arrived directly from the Philippines and/or Taiwan, pausing only briefly en route.[18] They brought with them crops such as yam, taro, and banana, as well as domesticated animals such as pigs and chickens.[12] Their arrival is coincident with the extinction of several species, such as the land crocodile (Mekosuchus kalpokasi), land tortoise (Meiolania damelipi) and various flightless bird species.[12] Lapita settlements reached as far east as Tonga and Samoa at their greatest extent.[12]
Over time, the Lapita culture lost much of its early unity; as such, it became increasingly fragmented, the precise reasons for which are unclear. Over the centuries, pottery, settlement and burial practices in Vanuatu all evolved in a more localised direction, with long-distance trade and migration patterns contracting.[12] Nevertheless, some limited long-distance trade did continue, with similar cultural practices and late-period items also being found in Fiji, New Caledonia, the Bismarcks and the Solomons.[12] Finds in central and southern Vanuatu, such as distinctive adzes, also indicate some trade connections with, and possibly population movements of, Polynesian peoples to the east.[12][14]
Over time, it is thought that the Lapita either mixed with, or acted as pioneers for, migrants coming from the Bismarks and elsewhere in Melanesia, ultimately producing the darker-skinned physiognomy that is typical of modern Ni-Vanuatu.
This linguistic hyperdiversity resulted from a number of factors: continuing waves of migration, the existence of numerous decentralised and generally self-sufficient communities, hostilities between people groups, with none able to dominate any of the others, and the difficult geography of Vanuatu that impeded inter- and intra-island travel and communication.[22] The geological record also shows that a huge volcanic eruption occurred on Ambrym in c. 200 CE, which would have devastated local populations and likely resulted in further population movements.[12][14][23]
Arrival of Europeans (1606–1906)
The Vanuatu islands first had contact with Europeans in April 1606, when the
Despite Queirós's intention, relations with the Ni-Vanuatu turned violent within days. The Spanish subsequent attempts to make contact were met with the islanders fleeing or leading the explorers into an ambush.[14] Many of the crew, including Queirós, were also suffering from ill health, with Queirós's mental state also deteriorating.[14][25] The settlement was abandoned after a month, with Queirós continuing his search for the southern continent.[14]
Europeans did not return until 1768, when the French explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville sailed by the islands on 22 May, naming them the Great Cyclades.[27][12] Of the various French toponyms Bougainville devised, only Pentecost Island has stuck.[25]
The French landed on
In 1789, William Bligh and the remainder of his crew sailed through the Banks Islands on their return voyage to Timor following the mutiny on the Bounty; Bligh later returned to the islands, naming them after his benefactor Joseph Banks.[29]
Whaleships were among the first regular visitors to this group of islands. The first recorded visit was by the Rose in February 1804, and the last known visit by the New Bedford ship John and Winthrop in 1887.[30] In 1825, the trader Peter Dillon's discovery of sandalwood on the island of Erromango, highly valued as an incense in China where it could be traded for tea, resulted in rush of incomers that ended in 1830 after a clash between immigrant Polynesian workers and indigenous Ni-Vanuatu.[12][31][32][33] Further sandalwood trees were found on Efate, Espiritu Santo, and Aneityum, prompting a series of boom and busts, though supplies were essentially exhausted by the mid-1860s, and the trade largely ceased.[31][33]
During the 1860s,
From 1839 onwards,
Other European settlers also came, looking for land for
French planters also began arriving, beginning with Ferdinand Chevillard on Efate in 1880, and later in larger numbers following the creation of the Compagnie Caledonienne des Nouvelles-Hébrides (CCNH) I. 1882 by John Higginson (a fiercely pro-French Irishman), which soon tipped the balance in favour of French subjects.[36][37] The French government took over the CCNH in 1894 and actively encouraged French settlement.[33] By 1906, French settlers (at 401) outnumbered the British (228) almost two to one.[28][33]
Colonial era (1906–1980)
Early period (1906–1945)
The jumbling of French and British interests in the islands and the near lawlessness prevalent there brought petitions for one or another of the two powers to annex the territory.[33] The Convention of 16 October 1887 established a joint naval commission for the sole purpose of protecting French and British citizens, with no claim to jurisdiction over internal native affairs.[14][38] Hostilities between settlers and Ni-Vanuatu were commonplace, often centring on disputes over land which had been purchased in dubious circumstances.[33] There was pressure from French settlers in New Caledonia to annex the islands, though Britain was unwilling to relinquish their influence completely.[14]
As a result, in 1906 France and the United Kingdom agreed to administer the islands jointly; called the Anglo-French Condominium, it was a unique form of government, with two separate governmental, legal, judicial and financial systems that came together only in a (weak and ineffective) Joint Court.[33][39] Land expropriation and exploitation of Ni-Vanuatu workers on plantations continued apace.[33] In an effort to curb the worst of the abuses, and with the support of the missionaries, the Condominium's authority was extended via the Anglo-French Protocol of 1914, although this was not formally ratified until 1922.[33] Whilst this resulted in some improvements, labour abuses continued and Ni-Vanuatu were barred from acquiring the citizenship of either power, being officially stateless.[28][33] The underfunded Condominium government proved dysfunctional, with the duplication of administrations making effective governance difficult and time-consuming.[33] Education, healthcare and other such services were left in the hands of the missionaries.[33]
During the 1920s–1930s, indentured workers from Vietnam (then part of French Indochina) came to work in the plantations in the New Hebrides.[40] By 1929, there were some 6,000 Vietnamese people in the New Hebrides.[33][40] There was some social and political unrest among them in the 1940s due to the poor working conditions and the social effects of Allied troops, who were generally more sympathetic to their plight than the planters.[41] Most Vietnamese were repatriated in 1946 and 1963, though a small Vietnamese community remains in Vanuatu today.[42]
The
At the peak of the deployment, some 50,000 Americans were stationed on the two military bases, outnumbering the native population of roughly 40,000, with thousands more Allied troops passing through the islands at some point.[43] A small Ni-Vanuatu force of some 200 men (the New Hebrides Defence Force) was established to support the Americans, and thousands more were engaged in the construction and maintenance work as part of the Vanuatu Labor Corps.[43] The American presence effectively sidelined the Anglo-French authorities for the duration of their stay, with the Americans' more tolerant and friendly attitude to the Ni-Vanuatu, informal habits, relative wealth, and the presence of African American troops serving with a degree of equality (albeit in a segregated force) seriously undermining the underlying ethos of colonial superiority.[43]
Wartime Vanuatu was the setting for James Michener's novel Tales of the South Pacific.
With the successful reoccupation of the Solomons in 1943 the New Hebrides lost their strategic importance, and the Americans withdrew in 1945, selling much of their equipment at bargain prices and dumping the rest in the sea, at a place now called Million Dollar Point on Espiritu Santo.[33] The rapid American deployment and withdrawal led to growth in 'cargo cults', most notably that of John Frum, whereby Ni-Vanuatu hoped that by returning to traditional values whilst mimicking aspects of the American presence that 'cargo' (i.e. large quantities of American goods) would be delivered to them.[44][45] Meanwhile, the Condominium government returned, though understaffed and underfunded, it struggled to reassert its authority.[33]
Lead-up to independence (1945–1980)
Decolonisation began sweeping the European empires after the war, and from the 1950s the Condominium government began a somewhat belated campaign of modernisation and economic development.[33] Hospitals were built, doctors trained and immunisation campaigns carried out.[33] The inadequate mission-run school system was taken over and improved, with primary enrollment greatly increasing to be near-universal by 1970.[33] There was greater oversight of the plantations, with worker exploitation being clamped down on and Ni-Vanuatu paid higher wages.[33]
New industries, such as
The economic development had unintended consequences. In the 1960s, many planters began fencing off and clearing large areas of bushland for cattle ranching, which were often deemed to be communally-held kastom lands by Ni-Vanuatu.
Meanwhile, French settlers, and Francophone and mixed-race Ni-Vanuatu, established two separate parties on a platform of more gradual political development – the Mouvement Autonomiste des Nouvelles-Hébrides (MANH), based on Espiritu Santo, and the Union des Communautés des Nouvelles-Hébrides (UCNH) on Efate.[33] The parties aligned on linguistic and religious lines: the NHNP was seen as the party of Anglophone Protestants, and were backed by the British who wished to exit the colony altogether, whereas the MANH, UCNH, Nagriamel and others (collectively known as the 'Moderates') represented Catholic Francophone interests, and a more gradual path to independence.[33] France backed these groups as they were keen to maintain their influence in the region, most especially in their mineral-rich colony of New Caledonia where they were attempting to suppress an independence movement.[33][47]
Meanwhile, economic development continued, with numerous banks and financial centres opening up in the early 1970s to take advantage of the territory's tax haven status.[33] A mini-building boom took off in Port Vila and, following the building of a deep-sea wharf, cruise ship tourism grew rapidly, with annual arrivals reaching 40,000 by 1977.[33] The boom encouraged increasing urbanisation and the populations of Port Vila and Luganville grew rapidly.[33]
In November 1974, the British and French met and agreed to create New Hebrides Representative Assembly in the colony, based partly on universal suffrage and partly on appointed persons representing various interest groups.[33] The first election took place in November 1975, resulting in an overall victory for the NHNP.[33] The Moderates disputed the results, with Jimmy Stevens threatening to secede and declare independence.[33] The Condominium's Resident Commissioners decided to postpone the opening of the Assembly, though the two sides proved unable to agree on a solution, prompting protests and counter-protests, some of which turned violent.[33][48][49] After discussions and some fresh elections in disputed areas, the Assembly finally convened in November 1976.[33][50][51] The NHNP renamed itself the Vanua'aku Pati (VP) in 1977, and now supported immediate independence under a strong central government and an Anglicisation of the islands. The Moderates meanwhile supported a more gradual transition to independence and a federal system, plus the maintenance of French as an official language.[33]
In March 1977, a joint Anglo-French and Ni-Vanuatu conference was held in London, at which it was agreed to hold fresh Assembly elections and later an independence referendum in 1980; the VP boycotted the conference and the subsequent election in November.[33][52] They set up a parallel 'People's Provisional Government' which had de facto control of many areas, prompting violent confrontations with Moderates and the Condominium government.[33][53][54]
A compromise was eventually brokered, a Government of National Unity formed under a new constitution, and fresh elections held in November 1979, which the VP won with a comfortable majority. Independence was now scheduled for 30 July 1980.[33] Performing less well than expected, the Moderates disputed the results.[33][55]
Tensions continued throughout 1980. Violent confrontations occurred between VP and Moderate supporters on several islands.
Independence (1980–present)
The New Hebrides, now renamed Vanuatu, achieved independence as planned on 30 July 1980 under Prime Minister Walter Lini, with a ceremonial President replacing the Resident Commissioners.[33][57][58] The Anglo-French forces withdrew in August, and Lini called in troops from Papua New Guinea, sparking the brief 'Coconut War' against Jimmy Stevens's Vemarana separatists.[33][59] The PNG forces quickly quelled the Vemarana revolt and Stevens surrendered on 1 September; he was later jailed.[33][60][61] Lini remained in office until 1991, running an Anglophone-dominated government and winning both the 1983 and 1987 elections.[62][63]
In foreign affairs, Lini joined the
One such person, Donald Kalpokas, subsequently declared himself to be VP leader, splitting the party in two.[63] On 6 September 1991 a vote of no confidence removed Lini from power;[63] Kalpokas became Prime Minister, and Lini formed a new party, the National United Party (NUP).[63][59] Meanwhile, the economy had entered a downturn, with foreign investors and foreign aid put off by Lini's flirtation with Communist states and tourist numbers down due to the political turmoil, compounded by a crash in the price of copra, Vanuatu's main export.[63] As a result, the Francophone Union of Moderate Parties (UMP) won the 1991 election, but not with enough seats to form a majority. A coalition was thus formed with Lini's NUP, with the UMP's Maxime Carlot Korman becoming Prime Minister.[63]
Since the 1991 general election, Vanuatuan politics have been unstable with a series of fractious coalition governments and the use of no confidence votes resulting in frequent changes of prime ministers. The democratic system as a whole has been maintained and Vanuatu remains a peaceful and reasonably prosperous state. Throughout most of the 1990s the UMP were in power, the prime ministership switching between UMP rivals Korman and Serge Vohor, and the UMP instituting a more free market approach to the economy, cutting the public sector, improving opportunities for Francophone Ni-Vanuatu and renewing ties with France.[63][66] The government struggled with splits in their NUP coalition partner and a series of strikes within the Civil Service in 1993–1994, the latter dealt with by a wave of firings.[63] Financial scandals dogged both Korman and Vohor, with the latter implicated in a scheme to sell Vanuatu passports to foreigners.[67][68]
In 1996, Vohor and President
The new government was the first time the Green Confederation was in power, and the new Prime Minister, Moana Carcasses Kalosil, was the first non-Ni-Vanuatu to hold the position (Kalosil is of mixed French-Tahitian ancestry and a naturalised Vanuatu citizen). Kalosil instituted a review of the sale of diplomatic passports and publicly declared his support for the West Papua independence movement, a move supported by former PMs Kilman and Carlot Korman.[85][86][87][88] Kalosil was ousted in yet another confidence vote in 2014, with the VP returning under Joe Natuman, who himself was ousted the following year in a confidence vote led by Kilman, angered at being fired from his position of Foreign Affairs Minister. Meanwhile, the country was devastated by Cyclone Pam in 2015, which resulted in 16 deaths and enormous destruction.[89]
A corruption investigation in 2015 resulted in the conviction of numerous MPs in Kilman's government for bribery, including former PM Moana Carcasses Kalosil.[90][91] His authority severely weakened, Kilman lost the 2016 Vanuatuan general election to Charlot Salwai's Reunification Movement for Change (RMC). Salwai in turn lost the 2020 Vanuatuan general election amidst allegations of perjury, bringing back in the VP under Bob Loughman as the country dealt with the aftermath of Cyclone Harold and the global COVID-19 pandemic.[92][93]
Vanuatu was one of the last places on Earth to suffer a coronavirus outbreak, recording its first case of COVID-19 in November 2020.[94]
In October 2023, Vanuatu aimed itself at being the first Pacific country to eliminate cervical cancer.[95]
Geography
Vanuatu is a Y-shaped archipelago consisting of about 83 relatively small, geologically newer islands of
The fourteen of Vanuatu's islands that have surface areas of more than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi) are, from largest to smallest:
Vanuatu's total area is roughly 12,274 square kilometres (4,739 sq mi),[99] of which its land surface is very limited (roughly 4,700 square kilometres (1,800 sq mi)). Most of the islands are steep, with unstable soils and little permanent fresh water.[97] One estimate, made in 2005, is that only 9% of land is used for agriculture (7% with permanent crops, plus 2% considered arable).[100] The shoreline is mostly rocky with fringing reefs and no continental shelf, dropping rapidly into the ocean depths.[97]
There are several active
Vanuatu's population (estimated in 2008 as growing 2.4% annually)[103] is placing increasing pressure on land and resources for agriculture, grazing, hunting, and fishing. 90% of Vanuatu households fish and consume fish, which has caused intense fishing pressure near villages and the depletion of near-shore fish species. While well-vegetated, most islands show signs of deforestation. The islands have been logged, particularly of high-value timber, subjected to wide-scale slash-and-burn agriculture, and converted to coconut plantations and cattle ranches, and now show evidence of increased soil erosion and landslides.[97]
Many upland watersheds are being deforested and degraded, and fresh water is becoming increasingly scarce. Proper waste disposal, as well as water and air pollution, are becoming troublesome issues around urban areas and large villages. Additionally, the lack of employment opportunities in industry and inaccessibility to markets have combined to lock rural families into a subsistence or self-reliance mode, putting tremendous pressure on local ecosystems.[97] The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.82/10, ranking it 18th globally out of 172 countries.[104]
Flora and fauna
Despite its tropical forests, Vanuatu has relatively few terrestrial plant and animal species. It has an indigenous flying fox,
The 19 species of native reptiles include the
The region is rich in sea life, with more than 4,000 species of marine molluscs and a large diversity of
There are three or possibly four adult saltwater crocodiles living in Vanuatu's mangroves and no current breeding population.[106] It is said the crocodiles reached the northern part of the islands after cyclones, given the island chain's proximity to the Solomon Islands and New Guinea where crocodiles are very common.[108]
Climate
The climate is tropical, with about nine months of warm to hot rainy weather and the possibility of cyclones and three to four months of cooler, drier weather characterised by winds from the southeast. The water temperature ranges from 22 °C (72 °F) in winter to 28 °C (82 °F) in the summer. Cool between April and September, the days become hotter and more humid starting in October. The daily temperature ranges from 20–32 °C (68–90 °F). Southeasterly trade winds occur from May to October.[97]
Vanuatu has a long rainy season, with significant rainfall almost every month. The wettest and hottest months are December through April, which also constitutes the cyclone season. The driest months are June through November.[97] Rainfall averages about 2,360 millimetres (93 in) per year but can be as high as 4,000 millimetres (160 in) in the northern islands.[100] According to the WorldRiskIndex 2021, Vanuatu ranks first among the countries with the highest disaster risk worldwide.[109]
In 2023, the governments of Vanuatu and other vulnerable to climate change islands (Fiji, Niue, the Solomon Islands, Tonga and Tuvalu) launched the "Port Vila Call for a Just Transition to a Fossil Fuel Free Pacific", calling for the phase out fossil fuels and the 'rapid and just transition' to renewable energy and strengthening environmental law including introducing the crime of ecocide.[110][111][112]
Tropical cyclones
In March 2015, Cyclone Pam impacted much of Vanuatu as a Category 5 severe tropical cyclone, causing deaths and extensive damage to all the islands. As of 17 March 2015[update] the United Nations said the official death toll was 11 (six from Efate and five from Tanna), and 30 were reported injured; these numbers were expected to rise as more remote islands reported back.[113][114] Vanuatu lands minister, Ralph Regenvanu said, "This is the worst disaster to affect Vanuatu ever as far as we know."[115]
In April 2020, Cyclone Harold travelled through the Espiritu Santo town of Luganville, causing great material damage there and on at least four islands.[116]
Earthquakes
Vanuatu has relatively frequent earthquakes. Of the 58 M7 or greater events that occurred between 1909 and 2001, few were studied.
Government
Politics
The Republic of Vanuatu is a
The Prime Minister, who is the head of government, is elected by a majority vote of a three-quarters quorum of the Parliament. The Prime Minister, in turn, appoints the Council of Ministers, whose number may not exceed a quarter of the number of parliamentary representatives. The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers constitute the executive government.
The
The national Council of Chiefs, called the Malvatu Mauri and elected by district councils of chiefs, advises the government on all matters concerning ni-Vanuatu culture and language.
Besides national authorities and figures, Vanuatu also has high-placed people at the village level. Chiefs continue to be the leading figures at the village level. It has been reported that even politicians need to oblige them.[120] One becomes such a figure by holding a number of lavish feasts (each feast allowing them a higher ceremonial grade) or alternatively through inheritance (the latter only in Polynesian-influenced villages). In northern Vanuatu, feasts are graded through the nimangki system.
Government and society in Vanuatu tend to divide along linguistic French and English lines. Forming coalition governments has proved problematic at times, owing to differences between English and French speakers.[citation needed] Francophone politicians like those of the Union of Moderate Parties tend to be conservative and support neo-liberal policies, as well as closer relations with France and the West.[citation needed] The anglophone Vanua'aku Pati identifies as socialist and anti-colonial.[citation needed]
The
Foreign relations
Vanuatu has joined the Asian Development Bank, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique, la Francophonie and the Commonwealth of Nations.
Vanuatu has been a member of
Since 1980, Australia, the United Kingdom, France and New Zealand have provided the bulk of Vanuatu's development aid. Direct aid from the UK to Vanuatu ceased in 2005 following the decision by the UK to no longer focus on the Pacific.
More recently, new donors such as the
In March 2017, at the 34th regular session of the UN Human Rights Council, Vanuatu made a joint statement on behalf of some other Pacific nations raising human rights abuses in the Western New Guinea or West Papua region, which has been part of Indonesia since 1963,[123] and requested that the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights produce a report[124][125] as more than 100,000 Papuans allegedly have died during decades of Papua conflict.[126] Indonesia rejected Vanuatu's allegations.[125] In September 2017, at the 72nd Session of the UN General Assembly, the Prime Ministers of Vanuatu, Tuvalu and the Solomon Islands once again raised human rights concerns in West Papua.[127]
In 2018, newspaper reports from Australia indicated growing concern about the level of Chinese investment in Vanuatu, with over 50% of the country's debt of $440 million owed to China.[128] Concern was focused on the possibility that China would use Vanuatu's potential inability to repay debt as leverage to bargain for control of, or a People's Liberation Army presence at, Luganville Wharf. China loaned and funded the $114 million redevelopment of the wharf, which has already been constructed, with the capacity to dock naval vessels.[129]
Vanuatu retains strong economic and cultural ties to Australia, the European Union (in particular France), the UK and New Zealand. Australia now provides the bulk of external assistance, including to the police force, which has a paramilitary wing.[130]
Karen Bell is the new British High Commissioner to Vanuatu. The British High Commission to Vanuatu, located in Port Vila, was re-opened in the summer of 2019 as part of the UK Government's 'Pacific Uplift' strategy.[131] The British Friends of Vanuatu,[132] based in London, provides support for Vanuatu visitors to the UK, and can often offer advice and contacts to persons seeking information about Vanuatu or wishing to visit, and welcomes new members (not necessarily resident in the UK) interested in Vanuatu. The association's Charitable Trust funds small scale assistance in the education and training sector.
Armed forces
There are two police wings: the
Administrative divisions
Vanuatu has been divided into six provinces since 1994.[139][140] The names in English of all provinces are derived from the initial letters of their constituent islands:
- Malampa (Malakula, Ambrym, Paama)
- Penama (Pentecost, Ambae, Maewo – in French: Pénama)
- Sanma (Santo, Malo)
- Shefa (Shepherds group, Efate – in French: Shéfa)
- Tafea (Tanna, Aniwa, Futuna, Erromango, Aneityum – in French: Taféa)
- Torba (Torres Islands, Banks Islands)
Provinces are autonomous units with their own popularly elected local parliaments known officially as provincial councils.[141]
The provinces are in turn divided into municipalities (usually consisting of an individual island) headed by a council and a mayor elected from among the members of the council.[142]
Economy
The four mainstays of the economy are agriculture, tourism, offshore
There is substantial fishing activity, although this industry does not bring in much foreign exchange. Exports include copra, kava, beef, cocoa and timber; imports include machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, and fuels. In contrast, mining activity is very low.
Although
Agriculture is used for consumption as well as for export. It provides a living for 65% of the population. In particular, production of copra and kava create substantial revenue. Many farmers have been abandoning cultivation of food crops and use earnings from kava cultivation to buy food.[120] Kava has also been used in ceremonial exchanges between clans and villages.[143] Cocoa is also grown for foreign exchange.[144]
In 2007, the number of households engaged in fishing was 15,758, mainly for consumption (99%), and the average number of fishing trips was 3 per week.
In 2018, Vanuatu banned all use of plastic bags and plastic straws, with more plastic items scheduled to be banned in 2020.[148]
Tourism brings in much-needed foreign exchange. Vanuatu is widely recognised as one of the premier vacation destinations for scuba divers wishing to explore coral reefs of the South Pacific region.
Financial services are an important part of the economy. Vanuatu is a
Vanuatu became the 185th member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) in December 2011.[153]
Raising cattle leads to beef production for export. One estimate in 2007 for the total value of cattle heads sold was 135 million vatu; cattle were first introduced into the area from Australia by British planter James Paddon.[154] On average, each household has 5 pigs and 16 chickens, and while cattle are the "most important livestock", pigs and chickens are important for subsistence agriculture as well as playing a significant role in ceremonies and customs (especially pigs).[155] There are 30 commercial farms (sole proprietorships (37%), partnerships (23%), corporations (17%)), with revenues of 533 million vatu and expenses of 329 million vatu in 2007.[156]
Earthquakes can negatively affect economic activity on the island nation. A severe earthquake in November 1999, followed by a tsunami, caused extensive damage to the northern island of Pentecost, leaving thousands homeless. Another powerful earthquake in January 2002 caused extensive damage in the capital, Port Vila, and surrounding areas, and was also followed by a tsunami. Another earthquake of 7.2 struck on 2 August 2007.[157]
The Vanuatu National Statistics Office (VNSO) released their 2007 agricultural census in 2008. According to the study, agricultural exports make up about three-quarters (73%) of all exports; 80% of the population lives in rural areas where "agriculture is the main source of their livelihood"; and of these households, almost all (99%) engaged in agriculture, fisheries and forestry.
The largest expenditure by households was food (300 million vatu), followed by household appliances and other necessities (79 million vatu), transportation (59), education and services (56), housing (50), alcohol and tobacco (39), clothing and footwear (17).[159] Exports were valued at 3,038 million vatu, and included copra (485), kava (442), cocoa (221), beef (fresh and chilled) (180), timber (80) and fish (live fish, aquarium, shell, button) (28).[160] Total imports of 20,472 million vatu included industrial materials (4,261), food and drink (3,984), machinery (3,087), consumer goods (2,767), transport equipment (2,125), fuels and lubricants (187) and other imports (4,060).[161] There are substantial numbers of crop gardens – 97,888 in 2007 – many on flat land (62%), slightly hilly slope (31%), and even on steep slopes (7%); there were 33,570 households with at least one crop garden, and of these, 10,788 households sold some of these crops over a twelve-month period.[162]
The economy grew about 6% in the early 2000s.[163] This is higher than in the 1990s, when GDP rose less than 3%, on average.
One report from the Manila-based Asian Development Bank about Vanuatu's economy gave mixed reviews. It noted the economy was "expanding", noting that the economy grew at an impressive 5.9% rate from 2003 to 2007, and lauded "positive signals regarding reform initiatives from the government in some areas" but described certain binding constraints such as "poor infrastructure services". Since a private monopoly generates power, "electricity costs are among the highest in the Pacific" among developing countries. The report also cited "weak governance and intrusive interventions by the State" that reduced productivity.[163]
Vanuatu was ranked the 173rd safest investment destination in the world in the March 2011 Euromoney Country Risk rankings.[164] In 2015, Vanuatu was ranked the 84th most economically free country by The Heritage Foundation and The Wall Street Journal.[165]
Vanuatu sells citizenship for about $150,000. With demand from the Chinese market booming, passport sales may now account for more than 30% of the country's revenue.[166] Such schemes have been shown to raise ethical problems,[167] and have been involved in some political scandals.[67][168] On 19 July 2023, Vanuatu lost UK visa-free access due to concerns over its citizenship by investment scheme.[169]
Communications
Mobile phone service in the islands is provided by Vodafone (formerly TVL)[170] and Digicel. Internet access is provided by Vodafone, Telsat Broadband, Digicel and Wantok using a variety of connection technologies. A submarine optical fibre cable now connects Vanuatu to Fiji.[171]
Demographics
According to the 2009 census, Vanuatu had a population of 243,304.[172] Men outnumber women, with the population consisting of 119,091 men and 114,932 women in 2009.[173] The population is predominantly rural, but Port Vila and Luganville have tens of thousands of residents.
The inhabitants of Vanuatu are called ni-Vanuatu in English, using a recent coinage. The ni-Vanuatu are primarily (98.5%) of Melanesian descent, with the remainder made up of a mix of Europeans, Asians and other Pacific islanders. Three islands were historically colonised by Polynesians. About 20,000 ni-Vanuatu live and work in New Zealand and Australia.
The community of
In 2006, the
Trade in citizenship for investment has been an increasingly significant source of revenue for Vanuatu in recent years. The sale of what is called "honorary citizenship" in Vanuatu has been on offer for several years under the Capital Investment Immigration Plan and more recently the Development Support Plan. People from mainland China make up the bulk of those who have purchased honorary citizenship, entitling them to a Vanuatu passport.[167]
Languages
The national language of the Republic of Vanuatu is Bislama. The official languages are Bislama, English and French. The principal languages of education are English and French. The use of English or French as the formal language is split along political lines.[176]
Bislama is a creole spoken natively in urban areas. Combining a typical Melanesian grammar and phonology with an almost entirely English-derived vocabulary, Bislama is the lingua franca of the archipelago, used by the majority of the population as a second language.
In addition, 113 indigenous languages, all of which are Southern Oceanic languages except for three outlier Polynesian languages, are spoken in Vanuatu.[177] The density of languages, per capita, is the highest of any nation in the world,[178] with an average of only 2,000 speakers per language. All vernacular languages of Vanuatu (i.e., excluding Bislama) belong to the Oceanic branch of the Austronesian family.
The growth of Bislama as a first language has considerably encroached on indigenous languages, whose use receded from 73.1% to 63.2% of the population between 1999 and 2009.[179]
Religion
Christianity is the predominant
Because of the modern goods that the military in the
Health
Education
The estimated
Port Vila and three other centres have campuses of the University of the South Pacific, an educational institution co-owned by twelve Pacific countries. The campus in Port Vila, known as the Emalus Campus, houses the university's law school.
Culture
Vanuatu culture retains a strong diversity through local regional variations and through foreign influence. Vanuatu may be divided into three major cultural regions. In the north, wealth is established by how much one can give away, through a grade-taking system. Pigs, particularly those with rounded tusks, are considered a symbol of wealth throughout Vanuatu. In the centre, more traditional Melanesian cultural systems dominate. In the south, a system involving grants of title with associated privileges has developed.[177]
Young men undergo various coming-of-age ceremonies and rituals[192] to initiate them into manhood, usually including circumcision.[citation needed]
Most villages have a nakamal or village clubhouse, which serves as a meeting point for men and a place to drink kava. Villages also have male- and female-only sections. These sections are situated all over the villages; in nakamals, special spaces are provided for females when they are in their menstruation period.
There are few prominent ni-Vanuatu authors. Women's rights activist Grace Mera Molisa, who died in 2002, achieved international notability as a descriptive poet.
Media
Music
The traditional
More recently the music of Vanuatu, as an industry, grew rapidly in the 1990s and several bands have forged a distinctive ni-Vanuatu identity.
Cuisine
The
The national dish of Vanuatu is the laplap.[195]
Sports
The most practised sport in Vanuatu is
Festivals
The island of Pentecost is known for its tradition of land diving, locally known as gol. The ritual consists of men land diving off a 98-foot-high wooden tower with their ankles tied to vines, as part of the annual yam harvest festival.[196][197] This local tradition is often credited to the inspiration of the modern practice of bungee jumping, which was developed in New Zealand in the 1980s.
See also
Notes
- ^ Vanua in turns comes from the Proto-Austronesian *banua – see Reuter 2002, p. 29; and Reuter 2006, p. 326
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Further reading
- Bolton, Lissant (2003). Unfolding the Moon: Enacting Women's Kastom in Vanuatu. UP Hawaii. ISBN 978-0-8248-2535-5.
- Bonnemaison, Joël; Huffman, Kirk; Tryon, Darrell; Kaufmann, Christian, eds. (1998). Arts of Vanuatu. UP Hawaii. ISBN 978-0-8248-1956-9.
- Bowdey, Bob; Beaty, Judy; Ansell, Brian (1995). Diving and Snorkelling Guide to Vanuatu. Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-55992-080-3.
- Bregulla, Heinrich L. (1992). Birds of Vanuatu. Nelson. ISBN 978-0-904614-34-3.
- Doughty, Chris; Day, Nicolas; Plant, Andrew (1999). The Birds of the Solomons, Vanuatu and New Caledonia. Helm. ISBN 978-0-7136-4690-0.
- Ellis, Amanda; Manuel, Clare; Cutura, Jozefina; Bowman, Chakriya (2009). Women in Vanuatu: Analyzing Challenges to Economic Participation. World Bank Group. ISBN 978-0-8213-7909-7.
- Eriksen, Annelin (2007). Gender, Christianity and Change in Vanuatu: An Analysis of Social Movements in North Ambrym. Anthropology and Cultural History in Asia and the Indo-Pacific. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7546-7209-8.
- Harewood, Jocelyn (2012). Vanuatu Adventures: Kava and Chaos in the Sth Pacific.
- Jolly, Margaret (1993). Women of the Place: Kastom, Colonialism and Gender in Vanuatu. Studies in anthropology and history. Vol. 12. Harwood Academic. ISBN 978-3-7186-5453-6.
- Mescam, Genevieve (1989). Pentecost: An island in Vanuatu. (Photographer) Coulombier, Denis. U South Pacific. ISBN 978-982-02-0052-4.
- Rio, Knut Mikjel (2007). Power of Perspective: Social Ontology and Agency on Ambrym Island, Vanuatu. Berghahn. ISBN 978-1-84545-293-3.
- Rodman, Margaret; Kraemer, Daniela; Bolton, Lissant; Tarisesei, Jean, eds. (2007). House-girls Remember: Domestic Workers in Vanuatu. UP Hawaii. ISBN 978-0-8248-3012-0.
- Siméoni, Patricia (2009). Atlas du Vanouatou (Vanuatu) (in French). ISBN 978-2-9533362-0-7.
- Speiser, Felix (1991). Ethnology of Vanuatu: An Early Twentieth Century Study. Crawford House. ISBN 978-1-86333-021-3.
- Taylor, John Patrick (2008). The Other Side: Ways of Being and Place in Vanuatu. Pacific Islands Monograph. UP Hawaii. ISBN 978-0-8248-3302-2.
- Troost, J. Maarten (2006). Getting Stoned with Savages: A Trip Through the Islands of Fiji and Vanuatu. Broadway. ISBN 978-0-7679-2199-2.
- Williamson, Rick (2004). Cavorting With Cannibals: An Exploration of Vanuatu. Narrative. ISBN 978-1-58976-236-7.
External links
- Government of Vanuatu Archived 29 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine
- Vanuatu Archived 9 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Vanuatu from UCB Libraries GovPubs
- Vanuatu at Curlie
- Wikimedia Atlas of Vanuatu
- Vanuatu Tourism Portal, the official website of the Vanuatu National Tourism Office
- Herbarium of Vanuatu (PVNH), which houses a collection of about 20,000 specimens
- Drones sacrificed for spectacular volcano video Archived 16 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- Ann Skinner-Jones and Joan Larcom Photographs – In 1981, Anthropologist Joan Larcom travelled with Photographer Ann Skinner-Jones to Vanuatu to create a photographic essay of the people and culture during the first anniversary of the country's independence from France and the United Kingdom. UC San Diego Library.