Article Evaluation: Economic History of Zimbabwe

One of the issues with the article is a lack of citations. Several paragraphs, such as in the "1980s" section, have few to no citations within them. The word choice when talking about the ZANU government also shows something of a bias, with the author calling them a "regime" and stating many of the economic decisions were done solely with an eye of propagating their own power. That may well have been the case, but for a scholarly article it betrays a bias against the ZANU-PF government. This is compounded by several sections in which the author draws conclusions, interpreting the events of Zimbabwe, which is a no for Wikipedia, while also providing no justification for his points through sources. One of the more egregious examples of this comes when the author calls the media " the huge parastatal sector of the economy", a rather unprofessional remark. There is also a lack of consistency with "percent" being represented either by the word or the "%" symbol depending on the section. The section "2000-Present" is also quite sparse, especially considering that was the era in which the most significant events of Zimbabwe's economic history occurred. The sources seem solid for the most part, however at least one of the articles simply links to an error message, thus this should be updated as well. The article is rated Start-class and top-importance, showing the need the article has for a full scale rewrite to make it reach the professional goals for which Wikipedia strives.

Economic History of the Arab World

The Gold Trade

West Africa

Around the 8th century, The Arab people understood the significance of gold and its economic impact.^[1] Arabs participated in the gold trade, specifically within the Ghana goldfields near the 9th century.^[2] The people of Ghana also participated in the gold trade from its beginning and began to purposefully dominate this trade.^[3] North African regions financially expanded as well due to their shipping of gold to various territories.^[4] Gold was a commodity to the Arabs near the 8th Century, which Africa would supply.^[5] Gold was good for the economic growth of the Arab people.^[6] As silver was declining in worth, the access to gold allowed the economic value of silver to be saved.^[6]

Mansa Musa

The term “Jizya” has referred to slightly different things throughout history, and the exact meaning/purpose/execution of the Jizya is debated.  It is mentioned in the Qur'an as part of the law, but the interpretation of the law has varied throughout time by the Muslims.^[9][10] Possible interpretations of the Jizya, and execution of these interpretations, have included a collective tribute, a poll tax, and a discriminatory tax.^[9][11].  One argument pertaining to the purpose of the Jizya is that it had nothing to do with discrimination, but only helped the government keep tabs on the population, and maintain a structured society.^[10]  This argument, however, contradicts what is stated in the Qur’an’s verses about the Jizya.  These verses give the idea of the Jizya as an act of humiliation and ethnic diversion.^[10]  The Jizya used to be a tribute required of non-Muslim people under the protection of the Muslims which gave this lesser people group or society, unable to protect themselves from outside Muslim opposition, the option to submit to the Muslim people, and come under their protection.  In return for this protection, the minority people are required to pay a tribute to the Muslim government.^[10] The Jizya often provided a source of financial support for the Muslims to continue their raids and expansion in the form of Jihads.^[10]

Swahili Coast

Early History

Trade along the Swahili coast dates back to 1st century C.E. up to 19th century C.E. Though there are not many reliable written records of Trade along the East African coast between 1st and 11th centuries, trade is still occurred between the Indian ocean coast (Azania) and the rest of the world (India, China and Arabian Countries). Interaction between these areas was assisted by the knowledge of the monsoon winds by traders who traveled the Indian Ocean.^[12]

Trade along the Swahili coast which ranged from the 11th century to the 19th century, though already locally established, was greatly influenced by the spread of Islam, which came about from intermarriage by Islamic traders and the local Bantu people.^[12]

Arab Presence

Arabic presence along of the Swahili coast began with the migration of Arabs from Arabia to the East African Coast because of demographic and political struggles back in Arabia. Later in the 8th century, trade along the coast was influenced the majority of Muslim visitors to the coast of East Africa. This trade fueled the development of coastal port towns such as Mogadishu, Mombasa, and Kilwa and also the growth of Swahili, a lingua Franca stemming from the interaction between Local Bantu people and Arab immigrants.^[13]

Omani Arabs

One of the major Arabic influences along the Swahili coast was the arrival of the Omani Arabs. Renowned as great mariners, the Omani traders were well known along the Indian Ocean. The arrival of the Omani Arabs along the east African coast in the late seventeenth century replaced the Portuguese influence along the Swahili Coast after their defeat at Mombasa.^[14] Trade along the Swahili coast increased with the Omani Arabs domination of the Swahili Coast. Development of Zanzibar between 1804 and 1856, increased the economic development of the Swahili Coast due to its role as an importer of Ivory and Slaves from the African Interior, through long distance trader.^[15]The Omani traders then exported slaves and ivory from the East African coast due to a high demand in Europe and India.^[16] The availability of slaves made them a suitable source of labor on the growing clove plantations of Zanzibar and Pemba and thus further increasing the demand for slaves along the coast which stimulated long distance trading within Eastern and Central Afrcia. Some of these slaves were bought as household slaves in the Swahili Arabs homes.^[16]

Trade with African Interior

Trading along the Swahili coast between the Swahili-Arabs and Interior tribes stimulated the development of the Interior African tribes. Because of the expansion of trade within the African interior, African rulers started developing politically with an aim to expand their kingdoms and territories in order to be able to have control of the trade routes and mineral sources within their territories. Due to the interaction between the Swahili-Arab traders and interior African tribes, Islam also spread as a religious language. The reign of the Sultans of Zanzibar between 1804 - 1888 and their dominion of the East African Coast from Somalia to Mozambique greatly influenced trade along the Swahili Coast.^[15]

Tippu Tip and the Slave Trade

Before the abolition of Slave trade in 1873 when a Proclamation of the prohibition of slave trafficking from the interior to the coast was issued, Tippu Tip was amongst the most well known Swahili-Arab traders. Having set out from Zanzibar in his conquest to obtain Ivory, he defeated Nsama of Trowa and established his own rule in Manyema country in order to control the Ivory and slave trade.^[15]

Crude Oil

East Africa

Eastern Africa, more specifically Sudan, positioned itself for growth through the oil trade.^[17] With a sense of possible hope for Sudanese economic profit, Arabs financed manufactory motives in Sudan, expanding products to help industrialize Sudan during the late 20th century.^[17] Despite the Arabs placing finances within Sudan territory, this seemed to have caused more issues as Ethiopians swarmed into Sudan, putting Sudan in a financially tough situation.^[17]

South Africa

South Africa’s history of oil imports from the Middle East shows a reliance on Iranian oil during the 1970’s.^[18] How the South African economy fared after South Africa not longer received oil from Iranian authorities is further explained as the authorities in South Africa are said to have taken action regarding this issue.^[18]

Waqf

A Waqf is a charitable endowment given by Muslims to help benefit their societies,^[19] and they had a major role in the economy, the development of cities, and travel.^[20] Typically, a Waqf took the form of rulers creating something for the benefit of their people.^[19] It required creating something that would be a source of renewable revenue and directing that revenue towards something, be it a specific individual, the community, or the local mosque so long as it brought one closer to God.^[21] Schools were also beneficiaries of Waqf due to Islam viewing education as a form of worship.^[22] The individual making a Waqf was not expected to benefit except in the spiritual sense.^[23]The Waqf was a pivotal part of building infrastructure as it would often lead to an increase in the number of businesses surrounding the endowed institution.^[21] Waqfs were also used to protect cities in warfare, such as the Citadel of Qaitbay, which was built to defend Alexandria in the mid-fifteenth century.^[22] While controversial, cash was also sometimes used as a form of Waqf with the interest on it supporting the beneficiaries.^[20]

West Africa

In West Africa, Waqf was practiced little with the exceptions being Timbuktu, Jenne, and Masina^[24] as West African leaders would typically gather and redistribute wealth in more impermanent ways to increase their own power.^[24]

Egypt

In

Waqf was often used by families to keep money within the immediate family.[25] In the 19^th century in Tripoli, Waqf was often used to benefit the nuclear family, excluding the extended family that would have gotten a share of the wealth had the normal inheritance laws been followed.^[19] Because of this, the Waqf has been criticized for allowing wealth to be maintained by the few.^[26]

Hajj

The Hajj is the fifth pillar of Islam that requires Muslims to travel to Mecca once in their lifetimes, provided they have the means.^[27] Until the 18^th century, however, these trips were done infrequently by people of the Arab world. Typically, only the wealthy or dedicated scholars were able to go on the Hajj.^[28] In some countries, such as Cameroon, the Hajj therefore became a status symbol for the wealthy.^[29]

Trade in Hajj

Trade was allowed on the Hajj and often those on it would have to trade along the way in order to finance their lengthy travels.

The pilgrims of the Hajj first traveled by Muslim state sponsored caravans, but these were replaced by European owned steam ships in the later 19th century which increased the number of travelers, but put the transportation industry of the Hajj in non-Muslim hands.[31] In 1908, the Ottoman empire built a train system returned some control of the industry to Muslims.^[31]

Modern

In more recent years, Saudi Arabia has seen an increase in revenue due to the tourism industry during the Hajj. In 1994, the Saudi government emphasized tourism as a way to increase their economy.^[30] In 2000 it was estimated that nearly sixty percent of all tourism in Saudi Arabia came for the Hajj or the similar ‘Umrah.^[30] Over forty percent of money spent by tourists being for the Hajj or the ‘Umrah.^[30] The increase in the tourism industry during the Hajj has helped to solve the country’s large segment of unemployed foreign workers from other countries^[30] such as Egypt and India people.^[30]

Peer Review

Y'alls article is amazing! Great images, sections, and references. I maybe saw one grammar error, but otherwise it looks great. Bekah

Last sentence of Mansa Musa paragraph - needs a reference (also I thought that it was mostly the Egyptian economy that tanked).

Jizya paragraph - put interpretation in first sentence (also confusing and had to reread)

Tippu Tip: problem sentence- Tippu Tip was amongst the well known Swahili-Arab traders (confusing, use different wording)

East Africa: bit of a run on (two sentences maybe?), word better - With a sense of possible hope for Sudanese economic profit, Arabs financed manufactory motives in Sudan, expanding products to help industrialize Sudan during the late 20th century

East Africa: what are you trying to say? - Despite the Arabs finances within Sudan territory, this (what?) seemed to have caused more issues as Ethiopians swarmed into Sudan, putting Sudan in a financially tough situation (why?)

South Africa - How the South African economy fared after South Africa not longer received oil from Iranian authorities is further explained (where?) as the authorities in South Africa are said to have taken action regarding this issue (what action? link?)

Modern: better wording -such as