Volcanism on the Moon
Volcanism on the Moon is represented by the presence of
The Moon has been volcanically active throughout much of its history, with the first volcanic eruptions having occurred about 4.2 billion years ago. Volcanism was most intense between 3.8 and 3 billion years ago, during which time much of the lunar lava plains were created. This activity was originally thought to have petered out about 1 billion years ago, but more recent evidence suggests that smaller-scale volcanism may have occurred in the last 50 million years. Today, the Moon has no active volcanoes even though a significant amount of magma may persist under the lunar surface.
Early impressions
In 1610, Italian
The origin of lunar craters remained controversial throughout the first half of the 20th century, with volcano supporters arguing that bright rays fanning out of some craters were streaks of
Features
After
Lava plains
The lunar maria are large basaltic plains that cover more than 15% of the Moon's surface. They are the most obvious volcanic features on the Moon, appearing as dark topographic features when seen with the naked eye. Many tend to cover the floors of large impact basins and are therefore typically circular in outline, with some smaller maria filling the bottoms of impact craters.[5] The major lunar maria range in size from more than 200 km (120 mi) to about 1,400 km (870 mi) and are outclassed only by the larger Oceanus Procellarum, which has a diameter of roughly 2,590 km (1,610 mi).[5][6][7] They typically range in thickness from about 500 to 1,500 m (1,600 to 4,900 ft), with individual lava flows ranging from 10 to 20 m (33 to 66 ft) thick. This suggests that each mare is the product of several overlapping eruptive events.[5]
The ages of the mare basalts have been determined both by direct radiometric dating and by the technique of crater counting. The radiometric ages range from about 3.16 to 4.2 billion years, whereas the youngest ages determined from crater counting are about 1.2 billion years.[8][9] Nevertheless, the majority of mare basalts appear to have erupted between about 3 and 3.5 billion years ago.[10] The few basaltic eruptions that occurred on the far side of the Moon are old, whereas the youngest flows are found within Oceanus Procellarum on the near side. While many of the basalts either erupted within, or flowed into, low-lying impact basins, the largest expanse of volcanic units, Oceanus Procellarum, does not correspond to any known impact basin.
The reason that the mare basalts are predominantly located on the near-side hemisphere of the Moon is still being debated by the scientific community. Based on data obtained from the
Examples
Latin Name | English Name | Lat. | Long. | Diameter |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mare Australe[4] | Southern Sea[15] | 47.77° S[15] | 91.99° E[15] | 996.84 km (619.41 mi)[15] |
Mare Cognitum[4] | Sea that has become known[16] | 10.53° S[16] | 22.31° W[16] | 350.01 km (217.49 mi)[16] |
Mare Crisium[4] | Sea of Crises[17] | 16.18° N[17] | 59.1° E[17] | 555.92 km (345.43 mi)[17] |
Mare Fecunditatis[4] | Sea of Fecundity[18] | 7.83° S[18] | 53.67° E[18] | 840.35 km (522.17 mi)[18] |
Mare Frigoris[4] | Sea of Cold[19] | 57.59° N[19] | 0.01° E[19] | 1,446.41 km (898.76 mi)[19] |
Mare Humboldtianum[4] | Sea of Alexander von Humboldt[20] | 56.92° N[20] | 81.54° E[20] | 230.78 km (143.40 mi)[20] |
Mare Humorum[4] | Sea of Moisture[21] | 24.48° S[21] | 38.57° W[21] | 419.67 km (260.77 mi)[21] |
Mare Imbrium[4] | Sea of Showers[22] | 34.72° N[22] | 14.91° W[22] | 1,145.53 km (711.80 mi)[22] |
Mare Ingenii[4] | Sea of Cleverness[23] | 33.25° S[23] | 164.83° E[23] | 282.2 km (175.4 mi)[23] |
Mare Marginis[4] | Sea of the Edge[24] | 12.7° N[24] | 86.52° E[24] | 357.63 km (222.22 mi)[24] |
Mare Moscoviense[4] | Sea of Muscovy[25]
|
27.28° N[25] | 148.12° E[25] | 275.57 km (171.23 mi)[25] |
Mare Nectaris[4] | Sea of Nectar[26] | 15.19° S[26] | 34.6° E[26] | 339.39 km (210.89 mi)[26] |
Mare Nubium[4] | Sea of Clouds[27] | 20.59° S[27] | 17.29° W[27] | 714.5 km (444.0 mi)[27] |
Mare Orientale[4] | Eastern Sea[28] | 19.87° S[28] | 94.67° W[28] | 294.16 km (182.78 mi)[28] |
Mare Serenitatis[4] | Sea of Serenity[29] | 27.29° N[29] | 18.36° E[29] | 674.28 km (418.98 mi)[29] |
Mare Smythii[4] | Smyth's Sea[30] | 1.71° N[30] | 87.05° E[30] | 373.97 km (232.37 mi)[30] |
Mare Tranquillitatis[4] | Sea of Tranquility[31] | 8.35° N[31] | 30.83° E[31] | 875.75 km (544.17 mi)[31] |
Mare Vaporum[4] | Sea of Vapors[32] | 13.2° N[32] | 4.09° E[32] | 242.46 km (150.66 mi)[32] |
Volcanoes
A number of domes and cones are present on the Moon, but such features likely formed differently than those on Earth.
Lunar domes are seldom found in isolation. Instead, they more commonly form in groups throughout the lunar lava plains.[34] A prominent example are the Marius Hills, one of the largest volcanic complexes on the Moon.[34][35] They consist of several cones and domes that occupy the summit of a broad topographic swell, which may be the lunar equivalent of a shield volcano.[34] The complex rises 100 to 200 m (330 to 660 ft) from the surrounding plains and forms a 35,000 km2 (14,000 sq mi) lava plateau. A total of 59 cones and 262 domes ranging in diameter from 2 to 25 km (1.2 to 15.5 mi) have been identified.[35]
Mons Rümker is a smaller complex similar in appearance to the Marius Hills.[34] It comprises a plateau with an area of roughly 2,000 km2 (770 sq mi) and rises 200 to 1,300 m (660 to 4,270 ft) above the surrounding surface. Three main basalt units ranging in age from 3.51 to 3.71 billion years have been identified at Mons Rümker, although the youngest volcanic features may be steep-sided domes on the plateau surface as they show indications of having been active until the Eratosthenian. More than 20 domes overlie the plateau and are the most prominent volcanic landforms of Mons Rümker.[36]
The Gruithuisen Domes in northwestern Mare Imbrium consist of two volcanic edifices: Mons Gruithuisen Gamma to the north and Mons Gruithuisen Delta to the south.[37] They are situated on the rim of an impact crater and differ in color from the surrounding rocks. The domes may mark a rare instance of non-basaltic volcanism on the Moon.[38] Mons Hansteen, a roughly triangular-shaped dome on the southern margin of Oceanus Procellerum, is another example of a rare non-basaltic lunar volcano. It consists of high-silica material that was erupted roughly 3.5 to 3.7 billion years ago from vents along northeast, northwest and southwest-trending fractures.[39]
The Compton–Belkovich Volcanic Complex (CBVC) is a 25 km (16 mi) wide and 35 km (22 mi) long non-mare feature on the far side of the Moon. It differs from other lunar volcanic features due to its evolved lithology, regional tectonic setting, its location being near the north pole, far from the Procellarum KREEP Terrane and its recent association with endogenic water. In the middle of the CBVC lies an irregular-shaped depression bounded by fault scarps that is believed to be a caldera. Just to the west is a roughly 10 km (6.2 mi) wide and 18 km (11 mi) long feature called West Dome. A volcanic cone-like feature, called East Dome, lies near the eastern caldera margin. It has a more or less north–south trend, measuring 12 km (7.5 mi) long and 7 km (4.3 mi) wide.[40] Just north of the caldera is a feature called Little Dome, 500 m (1,600 ft) in diameter. Further north is an elongated dome, oriented north–south, called Middle Dome. It is 2.5 km (1.6 mi) long and 0.6 km (0.37 mi) wide. Both Little Dome and Middle Dome have boulders on top that may be volcanic blocks.[41] Big Dome, also known as North Dome, is further to the north at the edge of the CBVC.[40][41] It is 2.5 km (1.6 mi) in diameter with a depression in the top.[41] Small-crater size frequency distribution has given inconclusive results for the timing of CBVC volcanism, with ages ranging from less than 1 billion years to greater than 3 billion years.[42]
Lava tubes
Although lava tubes have long been known to exist on Earth, it has only been relatively recently that they have been confirmed to also exist on the Moon. Their existence is sometimes revealed by the presence of a "skylight", a place in which the roof of the tube has collapsed, leaving a circular hole that can be observed by
Lunar lava tubes may potentially serve as enclosures for human habitats.[46][48][50] Tunnels larger than 300 m (980 ft) in diameter may exist, lying under 40 m (130 ft) or more of basalt, with a stable temperature of −20 °C (−4 °F).[51] These natural tunnels provide protection from cosmic radiation, solar radiation, meteorites, micrometeorites, and ejecta from impacts. They are insulated from the extreme temperature variations on the lunar surface and could provide a stable environment for inhabitants.[52]
Pyroclastic deposits
Near the edges of the lunar mare are dark layers of material that cover many thousands of square kilometers. They contain many small spheres of orange and black glass that probably formed from small drops of lava that cooled very quickly. Such droplets are believed to be ejecta from lava fountain eruptions that were larger than those on Earth.
Many smaller pyroclastic deposits measure only a few kilometers in diameter and are almost always located near the mare or in large impact crater floors, although several also lie along clear
Extending about 7 km (4.3 mi) east-southeast from the CBVC is a highly
Rilles
These are long, narrow depressions in the lunar surface that resemble
Arcuate rilles have a smooth curve and are found on the edges of the dark lunar maria. They are believed to have formed when the lava flows that created a mare cooled, contracted and sank.[60] These are found all over the Moon; prominent examples can be seen near the southwestern border of Mare Tranquillitatis and on the western southeastern border of Mare Humorum.[61]
Impacts
Analysis of Moon magma samples retrieved by the Apollo missions indicate that volcanism on the Moon produced a relatively thick
Partial melting of the lunar mantle and the emplacement of Oceanus Procellarum flood basalts may have caused axial tilting of the Moon 3 billion years ago, during which time the lunar poles shifted 125 mi (201 km) to their modern positions. This polar wander is inferred from polar hydrogen deposits that are antipodal and displaced equally from each pole along opposite longitudes.[64]
Recent activity
In 2014, NASA announced "widespread evidence of young lunar volcanism" at 70
See also
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