Exploration of the Moon

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Lunar Module Intrepid prepares to descend towards the surface of the Moon. 1969 NASA photo by Richard F. Gordon Jr.

The physical exploration of the Moon began when

lunar surface
were among his first observations using it.

Human exploration of the Moon since Luna 2 has consisted of both crewed and uncrewed missions.

lunar samples to Earth.[1] All lunar missions had taken place on the lunar near side until the first soft landing on the far side of the Moon was made by the CNSA robotic spacecraft Chang'e 4 in early 2019, which successfully deployed the Yutu-2 robotic lunar rover.[2][3] On 25 June 2024, CNSA's Chang'e 6 conducted the first lunar sample return from the far side of the Moon.[4]

The current goals of lunar exploration across all major space agencies now primarily focus on the continued survey of the lunar surface through various lunar missions in preparation for the eventual establishment of non-temporary human outposts.[5]

Pre-telescopic

See also: Lunar theory

It is believed by some that the oldest

prehistoric times and were eventually documented and put into symbols from the very first instances of writing in the 4th millennium BC
. One of the earliest known possible depictions of the Moon is a 3,000 BCE rock carving Orthostat 47 at Knowth, Ireland.[8][9] The crescent depicting the Moon as with the lunar deity Nanna/Sin have been found from the 3rd millennium BCE.[10]

The oldest named astronomer and poet

Sargon the Great (c. 2334 – c. 2279 BCE), had the Moon tracked in her chambers.[11] The oldest found and identified depiction of the Moon in an astronomical relation to other astronomical features is the Nebra sky disc from c. 1800–1600 BCE, depicting features like the Pleiades next to the Moon.[12][13]

The Nebra sky disc (c. 1800–1600 BCE), found near a possibly astronomical complex, most likely depicting the Sun or full Moon, the Moon as a crescent, the Pleiades and the summer and winter solstices as strips of gold on the side of the disc,[14][15] with the top representing the horizon[16] and north

The

Earth's radius (which had been accurately determined by his contemporary Eratosthenes
) proved to be about a third the actual average distance.

Chinese philosophers of the Han dynasty believed the Moon to be energy equated to qi but recognized that the light of the Moon was a reflection of the Sun.[18] Mathematician and astrologer Jing Fang noted the sphericity of the Moon.[18] Shen Kuo of the Song dynasty created an allegory equating the waxing and waning of the Moon to a round ball of reflective silver that, when doused with white powder and viewed from the side, would appear to be a crescent.[18]

Indian astronomer Aryabhata stated in his fifth-century text Aryabhatiya that reflected sunlight is what causes the Moon to shine.[19]

phases of the Moon, with respect to the position of the Sun

Persian astronomer

Alhazen investigated moonlight through a number of experiments and observations, concluding it was a combination of the Moon's own light and the Moon's ability to absorb and emit sunlight.[21][22]

By the Middle Ages, before the invention of the telescope, an increasing number of people began to recognise the Moon as a sphere, though many believed that it was "perfectly smooth".[23]

Telescopic exploration before spaceflight

See also: Selenography

In 1609, Galileo Galilei drew one of the first telescopic drawings of the Moon in his book Sidereus Nuncius and noted that it was not smooth but had mountains and craters. Later in the 17th century, Giovanni Battista Riccioli and Francesco Maria Grimaldi drew a map of the Moon and gave many craters the names they still have today. On maps, the dark parts of the Moon's surface were called maria (singular mare) or seas, and the light parts were called terrae or continents.

Galileo's sketches of the Moon from the groundbreaking Sidereus Nuncius

Jesuit astronomer Giovanni Battista Riccioli, who gave the large naked-eye spots the names of seas and the telescopic spots (now called craters) the name of philosophers and astronomers.[24]

A study of the Moon from Robert Hooke's Micrographia, 1665

In 1753, the Croatian Jesuit and astronomer Roger Joseph Boscovich discovered the absence of atmosphere on the Moon. In 1824, Franz von Paula Gruithuisen explained the formation of craters as a result of meteorite strikes.[25]

The now disproven possibility that the Moon contains vegetation and is inhabited by

Johann Heinrich Mädler published their four-volume Mappa Selenographica and the book Der Mond in 1837, which firmly established the conclusion that the Moon has no bodies of water nor any appreciable atmosphere.[26]

daguerreotype
of the Moon by John W. Draper (1840)
Photo of the Moon made by Lewis Rutherfurd in 1865

Space Race

Main articles: Space Race and Moon landing
See also: Apollo program and Soviet crewed lunar programs

The

Moon race" between the Soviet Union and the United States of America accelerated with a focus on the Moon. This included many scientifically important firsts, such as the first photographs of the then-unseen far side of the Moon
in 1959 by the Soviet Union, and culminated with the landing of the first humans on the Moon in 1969, widely seen around the world as one of the pivotal events of the 20th century and of human history in general.

The first picture of another world from space and of the Moon's far side, photographed by Luna 3 in 1959
Museum replica of Luna 1 and Luna 2
Scale model of Luna 3
First image of the Moon taken by a U.S. spacecraft,[27] Ranger 7 in July 1964
Block III Ranger probe
First photo ever taken from the surface of the Moon, by Luna 9 in February 1966
Luna 9 was the first spacecraft to achieve a landing on the Moon in February 1966.
Earthrise taken by William Anders of Apollo 8 in December 1968
1966 stamp with a drawing of the first soft landed probe Luna 9, next to the first view of the lunar surface photographed by the probe
Apollo 17 astronaut Harrison Schmitt standing next to a boulder at Taurus-Littrow during the third EVA (extravehicular activity)
USSR
in September 1970

The first artificial object to fly by the Moon was uncrewed Soviet probe Luna 1 on 4 January 1959, and went on to be the first probe to reach a heliocentric orbit around the Sun.[28] Few knew that Luna 1 was designed to impact the surface of the Moon.

The first probe to impact the surface of the Moon was the Soviet probe Luna 2, which made a hard landing on September 14, 1959, at 21:02:24 UTC. The far side of the Moon was first photographed on 7 October 1959, by the Soviet probe Luna 3. Though vague by today's standards, the photos showed that the far side of the Moon almost completely lacked maria.

The first American probe to fly by the Moon was Pioneer 4 on 4 March 1959, which occurred shortly after Luna 1. It was the only success of eight American probes that first attempted to launch for the Moon.[29]

In an effort to compete with these Soviet successes, U.S. President John F. Kennedy proposed the Moon landing in a Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs:

Now it is time to take longer strides – time for a great new American enterprise – time for this nation to take a clearly leading role in space achievement, which in many ways may hold the key to our future on Earth.
...For while we cannot guarantee that we shall one day be first, we can guarantee that any failure to make this effort will make us last.

...I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important in the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.

...let it be clear that I am asking the Congress and the country to accept a firm commitment to a new course of action—a course which will last for many years and carry very heavy costs...[30] Full text Wikisource has information on "Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs"

Ranger 1 launched in August of 1961, just three months after President Kennedy's speech. It would be three more years and six failed Ranger missions until Ranger 7 returned close up photos of the Lunar surface before impacting it in July 1964. A number of problems with launch vehicles, ground equipment, and spacecraft electronics plagued the Ranger program and early probe missions in general. These lessons helped in Mariner 2, the only successful U.S. space probe after Kennedy's famous speech to congress and before his death in November 1963.[31] U.S. success rates improved greatly from Ranger 7 onward.

In 1966, the USSR accomplished the first soft landings and took the first pictures from the lunar surface during the Luna 9 and Luna 13 missions.

The U.S. followed Ranger with the

robotic spacecraft to the surface of the Moon. Five of the seven spacecraft successfully soft-landed, investigating if the regolith
(dust) was shallow enough for astronauts to stand on the Moon.

In September 1968 the Soviet Union's Zond 5 sent tortoises on a circumlunar mission, followed by turtles aboard Zond 6 in November. On December 24, 1968, the crew of Apollo 8—Frank Borman, James Lovell and William Anders—became the first human beings to enter lunar orbit and see the far side of the Moon in person. Humans first landed on the Moon on July 20, 1969. The first humans to walk on the lunar surface were Neil Armstrong, commander of the U.S. mission Apollo 11 and his fellow astronaut Buzz Aldrin.

The first robot

Eugene Cernan, who as part of the Apollo 17
mission, walked on the Moon in December 1972.

Shuttle program
.

Before the "Moon race," the U.S. had pre-projects for scientific and military moonbases: the Lunex Project and Project Horizon. Besides crewed landings, the abandoned Soviet crewed lunar programs included the building of a multipurpose moonbase "Zvezda", the first detailed project, complete with developed mockups of expedition vehicles[33] and surface modules.[34]

After 1990

Cassini–Huygens took this image during its lunar flyby, before it traveled to Saturn.

Japan

Main article: Japanese Lunar Exploration Program

Japan began its lunar exploration efforts in 1990 with the launch of the

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), becoming the third country to place an object in orbit around the Moon. During the mission, Hiten deployed a smaller probe, Hagoromo
, intended to enter lunar orbit. Although the probe was released successfully, its transmitter failed, preventing the return of scientific data.

In September of 2007, JAXA launched the SELENE spacecraft, also known as "Kaguya". The mission aimed to collect data on the Moon’s origin and geological evolution, as well as to test technologies for future lunar exploration. According to JAXA, the primary objective was "to obtain scientific data of the lunar origin and evolution and to develop the technology for the future lunar exploration".[35]

In 2013, JAXA initiated the Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (SLIM) mission, a lunar lander designed to demonstrate high-precision landing capabilities. The lander was initially scheduled for launch in 2021, but was delayed due to postponements related to its ride-share partner, the X-Ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission (XRISM). SLIM was launched on 6 September 2023 at 23:42 UTC (7 September 08:42 Japan Standard Time). The spacecraft performed its trans-lunar injection burn on 1 October 2023, entered lunar orbit on 25 December 2023, and successfully landed on 19 January 2024 at 15:20 UTC. With this landing, Japan became the fifth country to achieve a soft landing on the Moon.[36]

Following the landing, SLIM experienced power generation issues but continued to operate intermittently. As of April 2024, the lander had survived four lunar days and three lunar nights, which are known for extreme temperature variations and pose significant challenges to spacecraft longevity.[37]

European Space Agency

The

SMART 1 on 27 September 2003, as a low-budget mission aimed at testing new technologies and conducting scientific observations. One of its main objectives was to capture three-dimensional X-ray and infrared images of the Moon’s surface. After a year-long journey, SMART 1 entered lunar orbit on November 15, 2004. It continued its survey work until September 3, 2006, when mission controllers directed it to impact the Moon deliberately to analyze the resulting debris plume.[38]


China

Main article: Chinese Lunar Exploration Program

China’s lunar exploration efforts are conducted through the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program, which includes scientific missions and assessments of potential lunar resources such as helium-3, an isotope considered for possible future use in terrestrial energy production.[39]

The China National Space Administration (CNSA) launched the Chang'e 1 lunar orbiter on 24 October 2007. Initially intended to operate for one year, the mission was extended and concluded with a controlled impact on the Moon on 1 March 2009. A second orbiter, Chang'e 2, was launched on 1 October 2010.

On 14 December 2013, China successfully deployed the Chang'e 3 lander and the Yutu rover, becoming the third nation to achieve a lunar soft landing.[40] It was the first soft landing on the lunar surface since Luna 24 in 1976. The backup spacecraft for Chang'e 3, originally constructed as a contingency, was repurposed for the Chang'e 4 mission, which targeted the far side of the Moon. Chang'e 4 was launched on 7 December 2018[41] and landed on 3 January 2019.[42] The Yutu-2 rover, deployed by Chang'e 4, set a distance record for lunar surface travel.[43] Its findings included the detection of a dust layer up to 12 metres deep in parts of the lunar farside.[44]

A sample return mission, Chang'e 5, was initially planned for 2017 but was delayed following a failure of the Long March 5 launch vehicle.[45][46] Following the rocket's successful return to flight in December 2019, CNSA launched Chang'e 5 in late 2020. The mission returned approximately 2 kilograms of lunar material to Earth on 16 December 2020.[47]

The Chang'e 6 mission, launched on 3 May 2024, conducted the first sample return from the lunar far side, specifically the Apollo Basin.[48][49] It carried a small rover, Jinchan, which conducted infrared spectroscopy and captured imagery of the lander on the surface.[50]

The spacecraft’s lander-ascender-rover module separated from its orbiter and returner prior to landing on 1 June 2024 at 22:23 UTC.[51][52] The ascender lifted off from the lunar surface on 3 June 2024 at 23:38 UTC, conducted an automated rendezvous and docking in lunar orbit, and transferred its sample container to the return module. The returner successfully landed in Inner Mongolia on 25 June 2024, completing China’s second lunar sample return mission and the first from the Moon’s far side.

India

Main article:
Chandrayaan Programme
These images show a young lunar crater on the far side of the Moon, as viewed by Chandrayaan-1's Moon Mineralogy Mapper instrument.

India's national space agency, the

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), launched Chandrayaan-1, an uncrewed lunar orbiter, on 22 October 2008.[53] The spacecraft was intended to operate for two years, with scientific objectives including the creation of a three-dimensional atlas of the near and far sides of the Moon and chemical and mineralogical mapping of the lunar surface.[54]

The orbiter released the Moon Impact Probe, which impacted the lunar surface at 15:04 GMT on 14 November 2008.[55] Among its key findings, Chandrayaan-1 detected the widespread presence of water molecules in the lunar regolith.[56]

This mission was succeeded by Chandrayaan-2, launched on 22 July 2019, which entered lunar orbit on 20 August 2019. It carried India’s first lander and rover; however, due to a technical anomaly during the final descent, the lander crashed on the lunar surface.[57]

Pragyan. The lander successfully achieved a soft landing near the lunar south pole on 23 August 2023, making India the fourth country to achieve a soft landing on the Moon and the first to land near the south polar region.[58][59][60]

United States

Main article: Artemis program

The

Clementine mission in 1994, and Lunar Prospector
in 1998.

Animation of Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter's trajectory from June 23, 2009, to June 30, 2009
   Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter ·   Moon

NASA launched the

GRAIL
is another mission, launched in 2011.

Following the decades-long lull in lunar exploration in the aftermath of the Cold War, the main push of US lunar exploration goals has coalesced under the Artemis program, formulated in 2017.[61]

Russia

Main article: Luna-Glob

On 10 August 2023, Russia launched the Luna 25 mission, its first mission to the Moon since 1976.[62] On 20 August, it crashed into the Moon after a guidance error that resulted in an anomalous orbit lowering maneuver.[63]

South Korea

Main article: Korean Lunar Exploration Program

South Korea launched the lunar orbiter Danuri on 4 August 2022, and it arrived at the Moon on 16 December 2022. This was the first phase of South Korea's lunar exploration program, with plans to launch another lunar lander and probe.[64]

Pakistan

Pakistan sent a lunar orbiter called ICUBE-Q along with Chang'e 6.[49]

Commercial missions

In 2007, the X Prize Foundation together with Google launched the Google Lunar X Prize to encourage commercial endeavors to the Moon. A prize of $20 million was to be awarded to the first private venture to get to the Moon with a robotic lander by the end of March 2018, with additional prizes worth $10 million for further milestones.[65][66] As of August 2016, 16 teams were reportedly participating in the competition.[67] In January 2018 the foundation announced that the prize would go unclaimed as none of the finalist teams would be able to make a launch attempt by the deadline.[68]

In August 2016, the US government granted permission to US-based start-up Moon Express to land on the Moon.[69] This marked the first time that a private enterprise was given the right to do so. The decision is regarded as a precedent helping to define regulatory standards for deep-space commercial activity in the future. Previously, private companies were restricted to operating on or around Earth.[69]

On 29 November 2018, NASA announced that nine commercial companies would compete to win a contract to send small payloads to the Moon in what is known as Commercial Lunar Payload Services. According to NASA administrator Jim Bridenstine, "We are building a domestic American capability to get back and forth to the surface of the moon.".[70]

The first commercial mission to the Moon was accomplished by the

OHB AG. The mission was launched on 23 October 2014 with the Chinese Chang'e 5-T1 test spacecraft, attached to the upper stage of a Long March 3C/G2 rocket.[71][72] The 4M spacecraft made a Moon flyby on a night of October 28, 2014, after which it entered elliptical Earth orbit, exceeding its designed lifetime by four times.[73][74]

The Beresheet lander operated by Israel Aerospace Industries and SpaceIL impacted the Moon on April 11, 2019, after a failed landing attempt.[75]

Blue Ghost Mission 1, a robotic Moon landing mission conducted by Firefly Aerospace, launched on January 15, 2025 and landed on March 2, 2025 at 08:34 UTC.

Plans

See also: List of missions to the Moon

Following the abandoned US

ESA
, China, Japan, India, and South Korea. All of them intend to continue the exploration of the Moon with more uncrewed spacecraft.

India is planning and it is studying a potential collaboration with Japan to launch the Lunar Polar Exploration Mission in 2026–2028.

Russia also announced plans to resume its previously frozen project Luna-Glob, an uncrewed lander and orbiter, which was slated to launch in 2021 but did not manifest.[76] In 2015, Roscosmos stated that Russia plans to place an astronaut on the Moon by 2030, leaving Mars to NASA. The purpose is to work jointly with NASA and avoid a space race.[77] A Russian Lunar Orbital Station has been proposed to orbit the Moon after 2030.

In 2018, NASA released plans to return to the Moon with commercial and international partners as part of an overall agency Exploration Campaign in support of

Space Policy Directive 1, giving rise to the Artemis program and the Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS). NASA plans to start with robotic missions on the lunar surface, as well as the crewed Lunar Gateway space station. As of 2019, NASA is issuing contracts to develop new small lunar payload delivery services, develop lunar landers, and conduct more research on the Moon's surface ahead of a human return.[78] Artemis program involves several flights of the Orion spacecraft and lunar landings from 2022 to 2028.[79][80]

On November 3, 2021, NASA announced it had picked a landing site in the lunar south polar region near the crater Shackleton for an uncrewed spacecraft that included NASA's Polar Resources Ice-Mining Experiment-1. The precise location was termed the Shackleton Connecting Ridge, which has near-continuous solar exposure and line-of-sight with Earth for communication.[81]

ESA's

Coordinated Lunar Time standard in 2024.[83] Due to the lower gravity and relative motion, time passes more quickly on the Moon, making every 24-hour period elapse 56 microseconds early when measured from Earth.[84]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Lunar Sample Overview". Lunar and Planetary Institute. Archived from the original on February 7, 2021. Retrieved December 28, 2018.
  2. ^ Lyons, Kate. "Chang'e 4 landing: China probe makes historic touchdown on far side of the moon". The Guardian. Archived from the original on January 3, 2019. Retrieved January 3, 2019.
  3. ^ "China successfully lands Chang'e-4 on far side of Moon". Archived from the original on January 3, 2019. Retrieved January 3, 2019.
  4. ^ Jones, Andrew (January 10, 2024). "China's Chang'e-6 probe arrives at spaceport for first-ever lunar far side sample mission". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on May 3, 2024. Retrieved June 25, 2024.
  5. ^ Dangwal, Ashish (November 22, 2023). "1st Country With Lunar Outpost, Competition 'Heating-Up' Between US-Led Artemis & China's ILRS". Latest Asian, Middle-East, EurAsian, Indian News. Retrieved May 5, 2024.
  6. ^ Boyle, Rebecca (July 9, 2019). "Ancient humans used the moon as a calendar in the sky". Science News. Archived from the original on November 4, 2021. Retrieved May 26, 2024.
  7. ISBN 978-0077419219
    .
  8. ^ "Lunar maps". Archived from the original on June 1, 2019. Retrieved September 18, 2019.
  9. ^ "Carved and Drawn Prehistoric Maps of the Cosmos". Space Today. 2006. Archived from the original on March 5, 2012. Retrieved April 12, 2007.
  10. ISBN 978-0-7141-1705-8. Archived
    from the original on August 19, 2020. Retrieved October 28, 2017.
  11. ^ Winkler, Elizabeth (November 19, 2022). "The Struggle to Unearth the World's First Author". The New Yorker. Retrieved February 10, 2025.
  12. ^ "Nebra Sky Disc". State Museum of Prehistory. Retrieved September 27, 2024.
  13. ^ Simonova, Michaela (January 2, 2022). "Under the Moonlight: Depictions of the Moon in Art". TheCollector. Retrieved May 26, 2024.
  14. ISBN 978-3-948618-22-3
    .
  15. ^ Concepts of cosmos in the world of Stonehenge. British Museum. 2022.
  16. OCLC 940282526
    .
  17. ^ O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. (February 1999). "Anaxagoras of Clazomenae". University of St Andrews. Retrieved April 12, 2007.
  18. ^
    ISBN 978-0-521-05801-8
    .
  19. ^ Hayashi (2008), Aryabhata I.
  20. ^
    doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1985.tb00831.x
    .
  21. doi:10.1086/349914
    .
  22. ISBN 9780816519897
    .
  23. ^ Van Helden, A. (1995). "The Moon". Galileo Project. Archived from the original on June 23, 2004. Retrieved April 12, 2007.
  24. ^ a b c "The Galileo Project". Archived from the original on September 5, 2007. Retrieved September 14, 2007.
  25. ISBN 978-5-89501-016-7
    .
  26. doi:10.2478/v10003-009-0008-2
    . Retrieved April 9, 2023.
  27. ^ "First image of the Moon taken by a U.S. spacecraft". NSAS NSSDC Image Catalog. Retrieved September 7, 2020.
  28. ^ "Luna 1". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive.
  29. ^ NASA.gov.
  30. ^ Kennedy, John F. (May 25, 1961). Special Message to Congress on Urgent National Needs (Motion picture (excerpt)). Boston, MA: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. Accession Number: TNC:200; Digital Identifier: TNC-200-2. Retrieved August 1, 2013.
  31. ^ NASA.gov.
  32. ^ NASA.gov – 24 January 2020.
  33. ^ "LEK Lunar Expeditionary Complex". astronautix.com. Archived from the original on December 8, 2013. Retrieved June 12, 2015.
  34. ^ "DLB Module". astronautix.com. Archived from the original on January 7, 2014. Retrieved June 12, 2015.
  35. ^ "Kaguya (SELENE)". JAXA. Retrieved June 25, 2007.
  36. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived
    from the original on January 19, 2024. Retrieved January 20, 2024.
  37. ^ Crane, Leah. "Japan's SLIM moon lander has shockingly survived a third lunar night". New Scientist. Retrieved April 25, 2024.
  38. ^ "SMART-1 Impacts Moon". ESA. September 4, 2006. Archived from the original on October 25, 2006. Retrieved September 3, 2006.
  39. ^ David, Leonard (March 4, 2003). "China Outlines its Lunar Ambitions". Space.com. Archived from the original on March 16, 2006. Retrieved March 20, 2006.
  40. S2CID 111801601
    .
  41. ^ China launches historic mission to land on far side of the Moon Stephen Clark, Spaceflight Now. 7 December 2018.
  42. ISSN 0261-3077
    . Retrieved June 6, 2019.
  43. ^ China's Farside Moon Rover Breaks Lunar Longevity Record. Leonard David, Space.com. 12 December 2019.
  44. ^ Morgan McFall (26 February 2020) China's lunar rover finds nearly 40 feet of dust on the far side of the moon
  45. ^ Nowakowski, Tomasz (August 9, 2017). "China Eyes Manned Lunar Landing by 2036". Archived from the original on November 12, 2020. Retrieved August 17, 2017.
  46. ^ Foust, Jeff (September 25, 2017). "Long March 5 failure to postpone China's lunar exploration program". SpaceNews. Retrieved December 17, 2017.
  47. ^ "China's Chang'e-5 mission returns Moon samples". BBC News. December 16, 2020. Retrieved December 16, 2020.
  48. ^ Andrew Jones [@AJ_FI] (April 25, 2023). "China's Chang'e-6 sample return mission (a first ever lunar far side sample-return) is scheduled to launch in May 2024, and expected to take 53 days from launch to return module touchdown. Targeting southern area of Apollo basin (~43º S, 154º W)" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
  49. ^ a b Jones, Andrew (January 10, 2024). "China's Chang'e-6 probe arrives at spaceport for first-ever lunar far side sample mission". SpaceNews. Retrieved January 10, 2024.
  50. ^ Jones, Andrew (May 6, 2024). "China's Chang'e-6 is carrying a surprise rover to the moon". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on May 8, 2024. Retrieved May 8, 2024.
  51. ^ Jones, Andrew (June 1, 2024). "Chang'e-6 lands on far side of the moon to collect unique lunar samples". SpaceNews. Retrieved June 1, 2024.
  52. ^ Seger Yu [@SegerYu] (June 1, 2024). "落月时刻 2024-06-02 06:23:15.861" (Tweet) (in Chinese) – via Twitter.
  53. ^ "NDTV.com: Perfect start, Chandrayaan-1 ready for next step". Archived from the original on December 12, 2008. Retrieved May 22, 2009.
  54. ^ "Chandrayaan-1 Scientific Objectives". Indian Space Research Organisation. Archived from the original on October 12, 2009.
  55. ^ "India sends probe on to the Moon". BBC. November 14, 2008. Retrieved November 16, 2008.
  56. ^ Lunar Missions Detect Water on Moon Archived 3 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  57. ^ "Chandrayaan – 2 Latest Update – ISRO". www.isro.gov.in. Archived from the original on September 8, 2019. Retrieved October 7, 2019.
  58. ^ Welle, Deutsche. "India spacecraft first to land on moon's south pole".
  59. ^ "India lands spacecraft near south pole of moon in historic first". The Guardian. August 24, 2023. Archived from the original on August 24, 2023. Retrieved August 25, 2023.
  60. ISSN 0971-751X
    . Retrieved August 25, 2023.
  61. ^ Public Domain One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: "NASA: Moon to Mars". nasa.gov. NASA. Archived from the original on August 5, 2019. Retrieved May 19, 2019.
  62. ^ "Russia is back on the lunar path. A rocket blasts off on its first moon mission in nearly 50 years". August 11, 2023.
  63. ^ Zak, Anatoly (August 19, 2023). "Luna-Glob mission lifts off". RussianSpaceWeb. Retrieved August 20, 2023.
  64. ^ "Danuri, South Korea's first Moon mission". The Planetary Society.
  65. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived
    from the original on July 15, 2017. Retrieved July 13, 2017.
  66. ^ Wall, Mike (August 16, 2017), "Deadline for Google Lunar X Prize Moon Race Extended Through March 2018", space.com, archived from the original on September 19, 2017, retrieved September 25, 2017
  67. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived
    from the original on July 30, 2017. Retrieved July 13, 2017.
  68. ^ "An Important Update From Google Lunar XPRIZE". Google Lunar XPRIZE. January 23, 2018. Archived from the original on January 24, 2018. Retrieved May 12, 2018.
  69. ^ a b "Moon Express Approved for Private Lunar Landing in 2017, a Space First". Space.com. Archived from the original on July 12, 2017. Retrieved July 13, 2017.
  70. ^ Chang, Kenneth (November 29, 2018). "NASA's Return to the Moon to Start With Private Companies' Spacecraft". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 1, 2018. Retrieved November 29, 2018.
  71. ^ "First commercial mission to the Moon launched from China". Spaceflight Now. October 25, 2014. Retrieved July 24, 2015.
  72. ^ "China Readies Moon Mission for Launch Next Week". Space.com. October 14, 2014. Retrieved July 24, 2015.
  73. Saft. January 21, 2015. Archived from the original
    on July 24, 2015. Retrieved July 24, 2015.
  74. ^ Moser, H. A.; Ruy, G.; Schwarzenbarth, K.; Frappe, J. -B.; Basesler, K.; Van Shie, B. (August 2015). "Manfred Memorial Moon Mission (4M): development, operations, and results of a privately funded, low cost lunar flyby". 29th Annual AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites. Retrieved April 9, 2023.
  75. ^ Lidman, Melanie. "Israel's Beresheet spacecraft crashes into the moon during landing attempt". www.timesofisrael.com. Retrieved October 7, 2019.
  76. ^ Covault, Craig (June 4, 2006). "Russia Plans Ambitious Robotic Lunar Mission".
  77. ^ "Russia to place man on Moon by 2030 leaving Mars to NASA". June 27, 2015.
  78. ^ Warner, Cheryl (April 30, 2018). "NASA Expands Plans for Moon Exploration". NASA. Retrieved April 1, 2019.
  79. ^ "National Space Exploration Campaign Report" (PDF). NASA. September 2018.
  80. ^ "Moon to Mars | NASA". June 25, 2018. Retrieved June 10, 2019.
  81. ^ "NASA picks landing site at the moon's south pole for ice-drilling robot". Space.com. November 5, 2021.
  82. ^ What is ESA’s Moonlight initiative?
  83. ISSN 0261-3077
    . Retrieved April 4, 2024.
  84. ^ If daylight saving time seems tricky, try figuring out the time on the moon .
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Moon exploration.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exploration_of_the_Moon&oldid=1298152525"