Citadel of Aleppo
Citadel of Aleppo | |
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قلعة حلب | |
Syrian Civil War |
The Citadel of Aleppo (
History
The recently discovered temple of the ancient storm-god Hadad dates use of the hill to the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE, as referenced in cuneiform texts from Ebla and Mari.[5] The city became the capital of Yamhad and was known as the "City of Hadad".[6] The temple remained in use from the 24th century BCE[7] to at least the 9th century BCE,[8] as evidenced by reliefs discovered at it during excavations by German archaeologist Kay Kohlmeyer.
The patriarch Abraham milked his sheep on the citadel hill.[9] After the decline of the Neo-Hittite Empire centered in Aleppo, the Neo-Assyrian Empire ruled the area (8th–7th century BCE), followed by the Neo-Babylonian Empire and the Achaemenid Empire (539–333 BCE).[10]
Seleucid period
After Aleppo was ruled by the armies of Alexander III of Macedonia, Aleppo was ruled by Seleucus I Nicator, who undertook the revival of the city under the name Beroia. Medieval Arab historians say that the history of the citadel as a fortified acropolis began under Seleucus I Nicator.[9] In some areas of the citadel there are up to two meters of remains of Hellenistic settlement. A colonnaded street led up to the citadel hill from the west, where the south area of Aleppo still retains the Hellenistic grid street plan.[11]
Roman and Byzantine periods
After the
The Roman Empire was divided into two parts in 395 CE. Aleppo was in the eastern half, Byzantine Empire. During the clashes with the Sassanian king Khosrow II in the 7th century CE, the population of Aleppo is said to have taken refuge in the Citadel because the city wall was in a deplorable state. Currently, very few remains from the Byzantine period have been found on the Citadel Hill, although the two mosques inside the Citadel are known to be converted from churches originally built by the Byzantines.[10]
Early Islamic period
Arab armies ruled over Aleppo in 636 CE. Written sources document repairs being made on the citadel after a major earthquake. Little is known about the citadel in the period of early Christianity and Islam, except that Aleppo was a frontier town on the edges of the
Zengid and Ayyubid periods
The citadel rose to the peak of its importance in the period during and after the Crusader presence in the Near East.
Mongol and Mamluk periods
The citadel was damaged by the
In 1415 CE, the Mamluk governor of Aleppo, prince Sayf al-Din, was authorized to rebuild the citadel, which by then stood at the centre of a significant trading city of between 50,000–100,000 inhabitants.
Ottoman period
During the
Aleppo and the citadel were heavily damaged in the
French Mandate
Soldiers continued to be stationed in the citadel during the French Mandate (1920 CE – 1945 CE). The French began archaeological excavations and extensive restoration work in the 1930s CE, particularly on the perimeter wall. The Mamluk Throne Hall was also completely restored during this time and given a new flat roof decorated in 19th-century CE Damascene style. A modern amphitheater was constructed on a section of an unexcavated surface of the citadel in 1980 to hold events and concerts.[17]
Modern day
The citadel in its present form is on a mound, which has an elliptical base with a length of 450 metres (1,480 feet) and width of 325 metres (1,066 feet). At the top this ellipse measures 285 metres (935 feet) by 160 metres (520 feet) with the height of this slanting foundation measuring 50 metres (160 feet). In the past, the entire mound was covered with large blocks of gleaming limestone, some of which still remain today.[17]
The mound is surrounded by a 22-metre-deep (72-foot) and 30-metre-wide (98-foot)
In August 2012 CE, during the
The citadel was extensively damaged by the
Internal sites
There are many structural remains inside the citadel. Notable sites include:
Entrance block
The enormous stone bridge constructed by Sultan Ghazi over the moat led to an imposing bent entrance complex. Would-be assailants to the castle would have to take over six turns up a vaulted entrance ramp, over which were machicolations for pouring hot liquids on attackers from the mezzanine above. Secret passageways wind through the complex, and the main passages are decorated with figurative reliefs. The Ayyubid block is topped by the Mamluk "Throne Hall", a hall where Mamluk sultans entertained large audiences and held official functions.[24]
Ayyubid Palace and Hammam
Ghazi's "palace of glory" burned down on his wedding night and he escaped with the queen, but it was later rebuilt and today stands as one of the most important and impressive monuments in the citadel crown. The Ayyubids were not the first to build a palace on the citadel. Today, numerous architectural details remain from the Ayyubid period, including an entrance portal with muqarnas, or honeycomb vaulting, and a courtyard on the
Laid out in traditional medieval Islamic style, the palace hammam has three sections. The first was used for dressing, undressing, and resting. The second was an unheated but warmer room, and this was followed by a hot room, and a steam room equipped with alcoves. Hot and cold water was piped through to the hammam with earthenware pipes.[25]
Satura, Hellenistic Well, and underground passages
The construction in the citadel was not confined to above-ground. Several wells penetrate down to 125 m (410 ft) below the surface of the crown. Underground passageways connect to the advance towers and possibly under the moat to the city.[25]
References
- ^ "Ancient City of Aleppo". UNESCO. Archived from the original on August 5, 2011. Retrieved Mar 7, 2012.
- ^ a b @edwardedark (July 29, 2014). "Video: rebels blow up historic building in front of Aleppo citadel today" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
- ^ a b "Syrian heritage destruction revealed in satellite images". BBC News. September 19, 2014. Archived from the original on August 13, 2022. Retrieved June 21, 2018.
- ^ "Aleppo Citadel reopens its doors as thousands of visitors regain their memories in". SANA. 16 June 2018. Archived from the original on 18 January 2020. Retrieved 12 June 2022.
- ^ DayPress News, "Temple of Hadad in Aleppo Citadel Sheds Light on Important Periods" Archived 2020-05-07 at the Wayback Machine, Jan 16, 2010.
- ISBN 9004131582.
- ISBN 9004147136.
- ISBN 978-9004185111.
- ^ a b c d Bianca and Gaube, 2007, pp. 73–103
- ^ a b c d e f Gonnela, 2008, pp. 12–13
- ^ Gonnela, 2008, p.11
- ^ Burns, Ross, Monuments of Syria; An Historical Guide, London: Tauris
- ^ a b c Gonnela, 2008, pp. 14–19
- ISBN 9780446393928.
- ^ Gonnela, 2008, pp. 19–20
- ^ a b Gonnela, 2008, pp. 21–24
- ^ a b c d Gonnela, 2008, p.25
- ^ "Aleppo citadel hit by shelling, says opposition". The Daily Star Lebanon. Agence France Presse. 11 August 2012. Archived from the original on 21 March 2018. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
- ^ "Syria civil war: Bomb damages Aleppo's ancient citadel". BBC News. July 12, 2015. Archived from the original on May 16, 2018. Retrieved June 21, 2018.
- ^ Abigail Hauslohner and Ahmed Ramadan (5 May 2013). "Ancient Syrian castles serve again as fighting positions". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 21 May 2014. Retrieved 9 May 2014.
- ^ UNESCO [49267] (2017). "Five years of conflict: the state of cultural heritage in the Ancient City of Aleppo; A comprehensive multi-temporal satellite imagery-based damage analysis for the Ancient City of Aleppo". unesdoc.unesco.org. pp. 34–56. Archived from the original on 2019-07-22. Retrieved 2019-07-22.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ "آثار سوريا لم تسلم من الزلزال.. تضرر قلعتي حلب والمرقب" (in Arabic). Al Arabiya. 6 February 2023. Archived from the original on 6 February 2023. Retrieved 6 February 2023.
- ^ Aleppo Citadel reopens to visitors after restoring its main entrance
- ^ Gonnela, 2008, pp. 31 35
- ^ a b c Gonnela, 2008, pp. 46 48
Sources
- Julia Gonella, Wahid Khayyata, Kay Kohlmeyer: Die Zitadelle von Aleppo und der Tempel des Wettergottes. Rhema-Verlag, Münster 2005, ISBN 978-3-930454-44-0.
- Gonnella, Julia (2008), The Citadel of Aleppo: Description, History, Site Plan and Visitor Tour (Guidebook), ISBN 978-2-940212-02-6, archived from the originalon 2012-06-09.
- Bianca, Stefano (2007), Syria: Medieval Citadels Between East and West, ISBN 978-2-940212-02-6, archived from the originalon 2011-06-04, retrieved 2009-07-24.
External links
- Syrian Ministry of Tourism Archived 2019-11-16 at the Wayback Machine, Arabic section
- Historic Cities Support Programme, Aga Khan Trust for Culture
- Extensive photo site about the citadel