Citadel of Damascus
Citadel of Damascus | |
---|---|
قلعة دمشق | |
Atsiz bin Uvak and Al-Adil I | |
In use | Until 1986 |
Materials | Carbonate rock, basalt |
Battles/wars | Siege of Damascus (1148) Siege by Kitbuqa (1260) Siege by Timur (1401) |
Events | |
Arab States | |
Garrison information | |
Past commanders | Baibars |
The Citadel of Damascus (
The location of the current citadel was first fortified in 1076 by the
, who made it his residence and had the defences and residential buildings modified.Saladin's brother
The citadel is located in the northwest corner of the city walls, between the Bab al-Faradis and the Bab al-Jabiyah. The citadel consists of a more or less rectangular curtain wall enclosing an area of 230 by 150 metres (750 by 490 ft). The walls were originally protected by 14 massive towers, but today only 12 remain. The citadel has gates on its northern, western and eastern flanks. The current citadel dates primarily to the Ayyubid period while incorporating parts of the older Seljuq fortress. Extensive repairs in response to sieges and earthquakes were carried out in the Mamluk and Ottoman periods.
Before the citadel
It is uncertain whether a building stood on the site of the
Old citadel
Construction of the old citadel
In 1076,
From Seljuqs to Zengids
After the death of Tutush I in 1095, Syria was divided between his sons
During the rule of the Burid dynasty (1104–1154), work was carried out on the citadel in response to multiple attacks on Damascus by Crusader and Muslim armies.
Nur ad-Din ruled as Zengid emir of Damascus from 1154 until his death in 1174. He took up residence in the citadel and rebuilt or refurbished its residential structures. After an earthquake hit Damascus in 1170, Nur ad-Din built a wooden house for sleeping and prayer next to the original stone residence of the citadel. In addition, he built a mosque and a fountain in the citadel. Between 1165 and 1174, Nur ad-Din re-fortified Damascus with a concentric wall, and it is possible that he also strengthened the defences of the citadel.[14] Nur ad-Din died of an illness in the citadel on 15 May 1174 and was buried there; his body was later transferred to the Nur ad-Din Madrasah in Damascus.[15]
Saladin to Al-Adil
Immediately following Nur ad-Din's death in 1174, Damascus was seized by Saladin, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt. In that year, Saladin rode from Egypt past the Crusader states to Damascus with only 700 horsemen. The city opened its gates to Saladin without resistance, except for the citadel, which surrendered to him later that year.[16] Saladin added a tower to the citadel and refurbished the residential buildings.[17] Like his predecessor Nur ad-Din, Saladin died of an illness in the citadel on 4 March 1193. He was initially buried inside the citadel, but later reburied in a mausoleum near the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus.[18]
At Saladin's death in 1193, rival Ayyubid factions led by Saladin's sons established themselves in Egypt, Aleppo, Damascus, and Iraq. Al-Afdal, Saladin's eldest son and emir of Damascus, was initially recognized by the younger sons as their overlord. However, hostilities broke out in 1194 between Al-Afdal and Al-Aziz Uthman, Saladin's second-oldest son and Ayyubid sultan of Egypt.[19] In 1196, Al-Aziz and Saladin's brother Al-Adil captured Damascus, except for the citadel, where Al-Afdal had taken refuge. After negotiations, Al-Afdal surrendered the citadel and his titles to Al-Aziz and was exiled to Salkhad in the Hauran.[20] Al-Adil recognized the overlordship of Al-Aziz and became ruler of Damascus. At the death of Al-Aziz in 1198, several members of Saladin's family, including Al-Afdal and Az-Zahir Ghazi, ruler of Aleppo, allied themselves against Al-Adil and marched on Damascus. Al-Afdal and Az-Zahir besieged Damascus in 1200 and 1201, but both attempts were unsuccessful. Al-Adil eventually negotiated a peace with Al-Afdal and Az-Zahir, who recognized Al-Adil's suzerainty as sultan of Egypt and emir of Damascus.[21]
New citadel
Construction by Al-Adil and dismantling by the Mongols
After his position as sultan of Egypt and emir of Damascus was secured, Al-Adil started an extensive rebuilding programme of the citadel. Between 1203 and 1216, the old fortifications were razed and a larger castle was built at the same location, incorporating parts of the old Seljuq citadel. The lower Ayyubid princes were each required to finance and build one of the large towers of the citadel.[22] Several of Al-Adil's Ayyubid successors rebuilt many of the administrative and domestic structures inside the citadel, including residences, palaces, and a pool. As-Salih Ayyub was the only successor who also modified the defences.[23]
Possible motivations for this complete rebuilding by Al-Adil include the damage the old citadel may have sustained from earthquakes in 1200 and 1201 and the threat that other Ayyubid princes continued to pose toward Al-Adil.[22][24] The most likely motivation is that the defences of the old citadel became obsolete due to the introduction in the 12th century of the counterweight trebuchet, a siege engine easily capable of reducing thick stone walls to rubble.[22][25] The new citadel introduced a number of important changes to the defensive system, including higher and thicker walls, a wide moat surrounding the citadel, and numerous closely spaced, high, massive towers. Unlike the older towers, these were square rather than round in design. The towers contained platforms on which trebuchets could be placed. Due to their high position, these trebuchets could outrange enemy artillery and thereby prevent them from breaching the walls.[25]
After Al-Adil's death in 1218, intense power struggles broke out among his sons and other Ayyubid princes. Between 1229 and 1246, Damascus switched hands regularly and was attacked five times by different Ayyubid armies. During this period, the citadel was only once taken by force—through
When the Mongols invaded Syria and threatened Damascus after
Mamluk period
The new
During the last two decades of the 14th century, a civil war raged in the Mamluk sultanate between Sultan
Siege by Timur and its aftermath
In 1400, the Mongol army under
The damage to the citadel, especially to its northern and western walls, was only repaired in 1407. In 1414, governor of Damascus Nawruz al-Hafizi, sought refuge in the citadel against the army of Sultan
Ottoman period
After the Mamluk defeat by the
When
World War I and the French Mandate period
When the British and Arab forces marched on Damascus in the final year of the
French military forces occupied the citadel during the French Mandate period in Syria (1920–1946). During the Great Syrian Revolt in 1925, the French shelled Al-Hariqa, the area immediately south of the citadel—where Syrian rebels were supposed to be present—from positions in the hills to the north of the city, and from the citadel itself. This bombardment resulted in widespread destruction.[44] After the French Mandate period, the citadel continued to serve as a prison and barracks until 1986.[45]
Restoration and research
The Ancient City of Damascus, including the citadel, was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979.[46] Since 1986 restoration works have been carried out by various Syrian and foreign missions with the aim of opening the citadel to the public. Until 1999, the restorations were carried out by the Syrian Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums (DGAM). In 1999 a joint French-Syrian mission was initiated under the supervision of the DGAM and the Institut français du Proche-Orient (IFPO). Between 2000 and 2006, this mission carried out extensive archaeological and art-historical research in the citadel, as well as further restoration works. In celebration of these restorations, a ceremony was held on 1 July 2006 which was attended by Syrian President Bashar al-Assad.[47]
In 2004 an agreement was signed between the DGAM and the Italian General Direction for Development Cooperation for a joint mission to renovate and reorganize the citadel and the National Museum of Damascus. This mission started working in the citadel in 2007. Much attention will be given to the reinforcement of damaged or structurally weak parts in the architecture. It is expected by the Syrian–Italian mission that, once renovations are finished, the citadel will be used for cultural and social events and activities.[48]
Citadel today
Location and layout
The citadel is located in the northwest corner of the old walled city of Damascus, between the
The citadel erected under the Seljuqs occupied an area measuring 210 by 130 metres (690 by 430 ft). Parts of the Seljuq walls were integrated in the rebuilding undertaken by Al-Adil. In this way, a second inner ring of defence was provided, as Al-Adil's walls enclosed a slightly larger area. The Ayyubid citadel encloses an uneven rectangular area of 230 by 150 metres (750 by 490 ft). The outer walls, constructed by Al-Adil, were pierced by three gates and originally protected by 14 towers, although only 12 of these remain.[45] Except for the western part of the curtain wall, the defensive works of the citadel that are still standing are primarily of Ayyubid date, with extensive Mamluk restorations.[52] The walls are partly obscured from sight by the urban fabric of Damascus, which has encroached upon the citadel during the 19th and 20th centuries. The shops along the north side of the Al-Hamidiyah Souq are built against the citadel's southern façade, while parts of the eastern defences are also obscured by buildings. The buildings that stood against the western and northern walls were cleared in the 1980s.[53][54]
The walls and towers of the citadel are constructed from carbonate rocks and basalt that were quarried in the vicinity of Damascus.[55]
Towers
Today, the citadel has 12 towers. There is one tower on each corner, three in between along the north and south walls and two facing east. Originally, the citadel had two more towers on the western wall, as reported by European travellers until 1759. The earthquake that hit Damascus in that year led to the collapse of the western defences of the citadel, with the western towers not being rebuilt afterwards.[56] The central northern tower, which once housed the north gate of the citadel, and the southwest corner tower have also largely disappeared. Of the former, only the west wall remains while of the southwest tower only parts of the basement can still be seen.[57] The other 10 towers have been preserved up to their original height, which ranges between 15 and 25 metres (49 and 82 ft).[45] The northern corner towers are square while the southern ones are L-shaped. All the other towers are rectangular with their broad sides parallel to the walls of the citadel.[58] All towers are crowned by a double parapet equipped with machicolations and numerous arrowslits. These parapets surrounded and thereby protected the large platforms from which trebuchets were operated.[59]
Curtain walls
The curtain walls of the citadel connect the towers with each other. Given that during the design of the citadel so much emphasis was placed on the massive towers, the curtain walls are relatively short. They range between 10 metres (33 ft) in length for the curtain wall that connects the two central towers of the east wall to 43 metres (141 ft) for the curtain wall connecting the northwest corner tower with the next tower east of it.[60] Where the walls are preserved up to their original height, which is on the south side of the citadel, they measure 11.5 metres (38 ft), while their thickness ranges between 3.65–4.90 metres (12.0–16.1 ft).[61] Along the inside of the curtain walls ran vaulted galleries that allowed quick access to all parts of the citadel. These galleries had arrowslits from which an approaching enemy could be shot. The walls were crowned by a walkway that was protected by crenellations.[62]
Gates
The citadel's three gates are located on the north, east and west sides of the citadel. The first two are the work of Al-Adil, although the northern gate has been repaired in the Mamluk period, while the current west gate is of later date. The northern gate was primarily reserved for military matters; the eastern gate was in civic use. During the Mamluk period, the eastern gate was one of two locations, the other being the Umayyad Mosque, where official decrees were posted, and this is reflected in a number of inscriptions that have been found here.[63]
The northern gate, or Bab al-Hadid ("Iron Gate"), was built with a primary emphasis on military matters. It originally consisted of arched entrances in the east and west walls of a tower in the middle of the northern curtain wall. These entrances led to a central vaulted room and from there through a long vaulted passage before reaching the courtyard. This large gate complex also incorporated the gate structures of the old Seljuq citadel. Based on stylistic evidence and inscriptions found in the citadel, the original construction of the Ayyubid gate can be dated to the period between 1210 and 1212. Most of the outer gate tower has disappeared and a street now runs through the western arch that still survives, while the vaulted passage that led into the citadel is now used as a mosque. The east and north gate complexes were connected through a 68 metres (223 ft) long vaulted passage that can also be dated to the reign of Al-Adil.[64][65]
The eastern gate, constructed between 1213 and 1215, is the only one that opens toward the area enclosed by the city walls of Damascus. It is located in one of the citadel's square towers and protected by another tower immediately south of the gate tower and a
The western gate was originally protected by two square towers that were probably built during the reign of Baibars. After the 1759 earthquake, which led to the collapse of the western defences of the citadel, these towers were not rebuilt. Unlike the other two gates, this gate has a straight passage.[67]
Southwest building
In the southwest corner of the courtyard, built parallel to the southern wall, is a two-storey building measuring 90 by 10 metres (295 by 33 ft) and reaching a height of 16 metres (52 ft). The date of this building has long been unclear, but based on the archaeological and architectural analysis carried out between 2002 and 2006, it has been shown that it predates Al-Adil's refortification of the citadel and must have been an addition to the defences of the Seljuq citadel. The function of this building after it was incorporated into Al-Adil's new walls, and thus after losing its defensive function, remains unclear as the archaeological analysis did not reveal any in situ material from which the building's use could be reconstructed.[68]
See also
References
- ^ Burns 2005, p. 2
- ^ Burns 2005, p. 85
- ^ Burns 2005, p. 141
- ^ Burns 2005, p. 144
- ^ Chevedden 1986, p. 30
- ^ a b Chevedden 1986, p. 31
- ^ Burns 2005, pp. 141–142
- ^ Chevedden 1986, p. 35
- ^ Burns 2005, p. 155
- ^ Hillenbrand 2001, p. 117
- ^ Phillips 2001, p. 123
- ^ Nicolle 2009, p. 78
- ^ Chevedden 1986, p. 34
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 45–47
- ^ Gabrieli 1984, p. 68
- ^ Lane-Poole 1906, p. 136
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 49–51
- ^ Lane-Poole 1906, pp. 366–367
- ^ Humphreys 1977, p. 94
- ^ Humphreys 1977, pp. 103–104
- ^ Runciman 1987, pp. 81–82
- ^ a b c Humphreys 1977, p. 147
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 59–61
- ^ Chevedden 1986, p. 65
- ^ a b Chevedden 1986, pp. 294–295
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 67–77
- ^ Humphreys 1977, pp. 351–354
- ^ Hillenbrand 2000, pp. 225–226
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 85–95
- ^ Lane-Poole 1901, pp. 296–297
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 97–98
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 98–100
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 101–107
- ^ Burns 2005, pp. 218–219
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 113–122
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 124–125
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 126–127
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 128–131
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 131–134
- ^ Burns 2005, p. 248
- ^ Burns 2005, p. 252
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 138–142
- ^ Kedourie 1964, p. 76
- ^ Wright 1926, p. 264
- ^ a b c Berthier 2006, p. 153
- ^ Ancient City of Damascus, UNESCO World Heritage Centre, retrieved 16 March 2011
- ^ Présentation de la mission (in French), Ministère des affaires étrangères et européennes, archived from the original on 22 June 2011, retrieved 16 March 2011
- ^ About the agreement between the government of the Italian Republic and the government of the Syrian Arab Republic on the financing of the initiative "Renovation and reorganization of the National Museum of Damascus and rehabilitation of the Citadel of Damascus", DGAM/DGCS, archived from the original on 27 July 2011, retrieved 16 March 2011
- ^ Hillenbrand 2000, pp. 480–481
- ^ Chevedden 1986, p. 167
- ^ Berthier 2006, pp. 156–158
- ^ Berthier 2006, pp. 153–154
- ^ Berthier 2006, p. 154
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 3–4
- ^ Adorni & Venturelli 2010, p. 337
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 241–245
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 176, 231
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 173–174
- ^ Chevedden 1986, p. 174
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 179, 238
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 179, 198
- ^ Chevedden 1986, p. 175
- ^ a b Chevedden 1986, p. 210
- ^ Hanisch 1996, pp. 3ff., 83ff.
- ^ a b Allen 1999
- ^ Hanisch 1996, pp. 31ff., 83ff.
- ^ Chevedden 1986, pp. 244–245
- ^ Berthier 2006, pp. 161–163
Bibliography
- Adorni, Elisa; Venturelli, Giampiero (2010), "Mortars and Stones of the Damascus Citadel (Syria)", International Journal of Architectural Heritage, 4 (4): 337–350, S2CID 95733766
- Allen, Terry (1999), Ayyubid Architecture, Occidental: Solipsist Press, ISBN 0-944940-02-1
- Berthier, Sophie (2006), "La Citadelle de Damas: les apports d'une étude archéologique", in Kennedy, Hugh (ed.), Muslim Military Architecture in Greater Syria: From the Coming of Islam to the Ottoman Period, History of Warfare (in French), vol. 35, Leiden: Brill, pp. 151–164, ISBN 90-04-14713-6
- Burns, Ross (2005), Damascus: A History, Milton Park: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-27105-3
- Chevedden, Paul (1986), The Citadel of Damascus, Ann Arbor: U.M.I. Dissertation Information Service, OCLC 640193186
- Gabrieli, Francesco (1984), Arab Historians of the Crusades, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-05224-6
- Hanisch, Hanspeter (1996), Die ayyūbidischen Toranlangen der Zitadelle von Damaskus. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis des mittelalterlichen Festungsbauwesen in Syrien (in German), Wiesbaden: Ludwig Reichert, ISBN 3-88226-886-7
- ISBN 978-0-415-92914-1
- ISBN 978-0-7190-5711-3
- Humphreys, R. Stephen (1977), From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193–1260, Albany: SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-87395-263-7
- OCLC 455336208
- OCLC 448994737
- Nicolle, David (2009), The Second Crusade 1148: Disaster Outside Damascus, Oxford: Osprey, ISBN 978-1-84603-354-4
- Phillips, Jonathan (2001), "The Latin East 1098–1291", in Riley-Smith, Jonathan (ed.), The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 112–140, ISBN 978-0-19-285428-5
- ISBN 978-0-521-34772-3
- Wright, Quincy (1926), "The Bombardment of Damascus", American Journal of International Law, 20 (2): 263–280, S2CID 147129628
Further reading
- Bessac, Jean-Claude; Boqvist, Marianne (2005), "Les chantiers de construction de la citadelle de Damas: méthodologie et résultats préliminaires", Arquelogía de la Arquitectura (in French), 4 (4): 237–249, ISSN 1989-5313