Emilio Aguinaldo

Newly appointed Governor-General

While Polavieja was poised to strike at Zapote, another Spanish contingent is marching towards Aguinaldo's rear. On February 15, 1897, the Spaniards launched the powerful Cavite offensive to drive and crush Filipino revolutionaries under Aguinaldo and his Magdalo forces that held numerous victories against the Spanish in the early stages of the revolution. Renewed and fully equipped with 100 cannons, 23,000 Spanish cazadores forces under Major General

Conflict within the ranks of the Katipunan factions, specifically between the

The Spanish Army launched an attack that forced the revolutionary forces under Aguinaldo into a retreat. On June 24, 1897, Aguinaldo arrived at Biak-na-Bato, San Miguel, Bulacan, and established a headquarters there in what is now called "Aguinaldo Cave" in Biak-na-Bato National Park. In late October 1897, Aguinaldo convened an assembly of generals at Biak-na-Bato that decided to establish a constitutional republic. A constitution, patterned closely after the Cuban Constitution, was drawn up by Isabelo Artacho and Felix Ferrer and provided for the creation of a Supreme Council composed of a president, a vice president, a Secretary of War, and a Secretary of the Treasury. Aguinaldo was named president.^[34]

In March 1897,

On April 25, the

Aguinaldo had brought with him the draft constitution of

On June 12, Aguinaldo promulgated the Philippine Declaration of Independence from Spain in his own mansion house in Cavite El Viejo, believing that declaration would inspire the Filipino people to eagerly rise against the Spaniards. On June 18, he issued a decree formally establishing his dictatorial government in which he also provided the organization of the local government and the establishment and the composition of the Revolutionary Congress.^[45]

On June 23, Aguinaldo issued a decree replacing his dictatorial government with a revolutionary government with himself as president upon the recommendation of his adviser Apolinario Mabini. The decree defined the organization of the central government and the establishment and the election of delegates to the Revolutionary Congress and to prepare the shift from a revolutionary government to a republic.^[46][47]

Arrival of Americans

By May 1898, Filipino troops had cleared Cavite of Spanish forces. In late June 1898, Aguinaldo, with the help of American allies, who were now landing in Cavite, was now preparing to drive the Spaniards out of Manila. The first contingent of American troops arrived in Cavite on June 30, the second under General

In August 1898, life in Intramuros, the walled center of Manila, had become unbearable, and the normal population of about 10,000 was now 70,000. Realizing that it was only a matter of time before the city fell and fearing vengeance and looting if the city fell to Filipino revolutionaries, Jáudenes, suggested to Dewey, through the Belgian consul, Édouard André, for the city to be surrendered to the Americans after a short, "mock" battle. Dewey had initially rejected the suggestion because he lacked the troops to block Filipino revolutionary forces, which numbered 40 000, but when Merritt's troops became available, he sent a message to Jáudenes, agreeing to the mock battle. A bloodless mock battle had been planned, but Spanish troops opened fire in a skirmish that left six Americans and forty-nine Spaniards dead after Filipino revolutionaries, thinking that the attack was genuine, joined advancing US troops.^[53] Besides the unplanned casualties, the battle went according to plan. The Spanish surrendered the city to the Americans, and it did not fall to the Filipino revolutionaries, who felt betrayed.^[54] By the end of September, Aguinaldo's forces had captured over 9,000 Spanish prisoners, who were relieved of their weapons. They were generally free to move around but remained within the control of Aguinaldo. Aguinaldo did not know that on December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris had been signed; it transferred the Philippines from Spain to the United States for the sum of $20 million.^[55]

First Philippine Republic

The

On August 13, 1898, American forces had captured Manila during the "mock" Battle of Manila and on August 14, 1898, established the United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands, with Major-General Wesley Merritt as the first American Military Governor.^[57] On the night of February 4, 1899, a Filipino was shot by an American sentry. That incident was considered to be the beginning of the Philippine–American War, and culminated in the 1899 Battle of Manila between American and Filipino forces. Superior American technology drove Filipino troops away from the city, and Aguinaldo's government had to move from one place to another as the military situation escalated.^[58] At the Battle of Marilao River, Aguinaldo himself led his forces to prevent American crossings. The Americans gained superiority in the battle only after severe fighting and the use of gunboats in the river that "made great execution" of Filipino soldiers.^[59] On November 13, 1899, Aguinaldo disbanded the regular Filipino army and decreed that guerrilla warfare would now be the strategy. Aguinaldo led the war against the Americans but retreated to Northern Luzon.^[60]

National cabinet

Capture and declaration of allegience to the U.S.

On March 23, 1901, with the aid of

Antonio Luna was a highly regarded general in the revolution who was sometimes at odds with Aguinaldo. On June 2, 1899, Luna received one telegram (he failed to receive two others) sent by Aguinaldo himself, According to Ambeth Ocampo, the message that Aguinaldo sent stated "Felipe Buencamino is detained without ordering the formation of the case. I await your reply to my previous telegram where I request the basis for your accusation. Beseech urgency."^[70]

Luna wrote to

During the American period, Aguinaldo largely retired from public life, though continued to support groups that advocated for immediate independence and helped veterans of the struggle. He organized the Asociación de los Veteranos de la Revolución (Association of Veterans of the Revolution) to secure pensions for its members and made arrangements for them to buy land by installments from the government.

Displaying the Philippine flag was declared illegal by the Sedition Act of 1907, but it was amended on October 30, 1919.^[80] Then, Aguinaldo transformed his home in Kawit into a monument to the flag, the revolution, and the Declaration of Independence. After Aguinaldo's death, the government declared the mansion as a National Shrine in June 1964.^[81][82]

1935 Philippine presidential election

In 1935, the Philippines became a commonwealth, and presidential elections were held as part of a ten-year transition to complete independence. Aguinaldo returned to public life and ran for the presidency as the candidate of the National Socialist Party (no relation to the German Nazi Party) against the highly popular Nacionalista Party candidate Manuel L. Quezon and Republican Party candidate Gregorio Aglipay. However, Aguinaldo's capture by the Americans in 1901 as well as his allegations in the deaths of Bonifacio and Luna had since made him an unpopular figure among the Filipino people, and he lost to Quezon in a landslide, gaining only 17.5% of the popular vote.

Despite his decisive defeat, however, Aguinaldo refused to accept the results of the election, believing it to be rigged against him.^[83] In Cavite, the only province he had won, Aguinaldo's supporters plotted a rally in Manila to disrupt Quezon's inauguration and even assassinate him. However, this planned event was never actually carried out. Aguinaldo continued to criticize Quezon throughout the latter's presidency, expressing anti-semitic views when opposing Quezon's plan to shelter Jews fleeing from the Holocaust.^[84] In 1939, Aguinaldo vigorously expressed his antisemitism by echoing bigoted notions that Jewish people were "dangerous" and "selfishly materialistic".^[85]

The two men formally reconciled in 1941, when Quezon moved Flag Day to June 12 to commemorate the proclamation of Philippine independence.^[80]

World War II

Collaboration with Japan and Second Republic

On December 8, 1941, the

Following the retreat of American forces, Aguinaldo continued his collaboration with the Japanese. He was appointed as a member of both the provisional Council of State as well as the

After US forces returned to the Philippines in October 1944, Aguinaldo went into hiding in order to avoid being captured and potentially killed. During the Battle of Manila, however, members of the Marking Guerrillas resistance force were able to track his whereabouts, and arrested him on February 8, 1945. Aguinaldo was then placed under house arrest as the US Army's Counterintelligence Corps investigated his collaboration with the Japanese. Despite his claims that he had secretly remained loyal to the US throughout the war, and that he, as well as other Axis collaborators, had only been forced to collaborate with Japan under great duress and should therefore all be granted amnesty, the People's Court of the Philippines nonetheless charged Aguinaldo with 11 counts of treason for his "wholehearted" support for and collaboration with the Empire of Japan.^[88]

Aguinaldo was 77 when the US government recognized Philippine independence in the Treaty of Manila on July 4, 1946, in accordance with the Tydings–McDuffie Act of 1934. On January 28, 1948, Philippine president Manuel Roxas granted amnesty to all Filipinos who had collaborated with the Empire of Japan and as a result, Aguinaldo's charges were dropped and his trial was never held.^[89][90][91]

Independence era

In 1950, President

He was made an honorary Doctor of Laws, Honoris Causa, by the University of the Philippines in 1953.

On May 12, 1962, President Diosdado Macapagal changed the celebration of Independence Day from July 4 to June 12 to honor Aguinaldo and the Revolution of 1898, rather than the establishment of the Insular Government of the Philippine Islands by the United States.^[92][93] Although in poor health by that point, Aguinaldo attended the 1962 Independence Day observances.^[94] On August 4, 1964, Republic Act No. 4166 officially proclaimed June 12 to be Philippine Independence Day and renamed the Fourth of July holiday as "Philippine Republic Day".^[95]

Personal life

On January 1, 1896, he married

During the revolt against Spain and subsequent conflicts with American forces, Aguinaldo supported the Philippine Independent Church.^[98] He became a long-time member, but reverted to Roman Catholicism later in life.^{[18][verification needed]}

Death and legacy

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2021)

Aguinaldo was rushed to Veterans Memorial Medical Center (VMMC) in Quezon City on October 5, 1962, under the care of Dr. Juana Blanco Fernandez, where he stayed for 469 days. He died of coronary thrombosis on February 6, 1964, at 3:05 am PHT,^[100] one month before his 95th birthday.^[15] Although Aguinaldo had renounced his Roman Catholic faith when battling against Spanish rule, he reconciled with the Church and received the last rites from VMMC's Catholic chaplain.^[101] A year before his death, he had donated his lot and mansion to the government. The property now serves as a shrine to "perpetuate the spirit of the Revolution of 1896."^[12]

Philippine President Diosdado Macapagal declared February 6 to 20, 1964 as "period of national mourning" over Aguinaldo's death.^[102] Aguinaldo was accorded a state funeral.^[103] His remains lay in state at his residence in Kawit from February 6 to 11, and then at Malacañang Palace from February 11 to 14. On February 14, his remains were brought to Manila Cathedral for a requiem mass in the morning presided over by Manila Archbishop, Cardinal Rufino Santos, and then to the Legislative Building for public viewing and necrological service on the next day. From Manila, his remains were returned to Kawit on February 15 for a vigil mass and a final requiem mass in the morning of the next day at Kawit Church. His remains were finally interred at the grounds of his residence in Kawit, Cavite.^{[104][105][106]}

Aguinaldo's book Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan (Memoirs of the Revolution) was published in 1964. A second publication was made in 1998 for the 100th anniversary of Philippine Independence.

According to Larry M. Henares of the Manila Standard, a consensus had formed by the late 20th century that Aguinaldo was the greatest president in Philippine history for his executory role in the Philippine Revolution's victory against Spain and his struggle to maintain the nation's independence during the Philippine–American War.^[107]

Honors

• : Quezon Service Cross – (June 12, 1956)
• : Philippine Legion of Honor, Chief Commander – (1957)
• : Presidential Medal of Merit – (July 2, 1955)^[108]
• Order of the Knights of Rizal, Knight Grand Cross of Rizal – KGCR.^[109]

• In 1957, Emilio Aguinaldo College was established as a private, non-sectarian institute of education and named after Aguinaldo. The EAC Generals are its varsity teams on which the nicknamed Generals is to honors President-General Emilio Aguinaldo.
• In 1965, Camp Murphy, a military general headquarters (GHQ) of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, was legally renamed after Aguinaldo.^[110]
• In 1965, President Diosdado Macapagal signed Republic Act No. 4346, which renamed the municipality of Bailen, Cavite as General Emilio Aguinaldo.^[111]
• In 1985, BRP General Emilio Aguinaldo was launched and became the lead ship of the General Emilio Aguinaldo class patrol vessel of the Philippine Navy. The ship, along with her only sistership BRP General Antonio Luna, was made in the Cavite Naval Ship Yard.^[112]
• In 1985, Aguinaldo Museum was established as history museum in Baguio by Cristina Suntay.

Aguinaldo on a 2019 stamp sheet of the Philippines.

Aguinaldo on the 5-peso coin from the BSP Coin Series (1995–2017).

• In 1985,
  Andres Bonifacio officially replaced Aguinaldo on the same coin.^[113]
• In 1999, Aguinaldo International School Manila was established as a private school in Ermita, Manila and is named after Aguinaldo.
• In 2018, President Rodrigo Duterte declared March 22, 2019, as "Emilio Aguinaldo Day" to commemorate Aguinaldo's birth anniversary.^[114]
• The Aguinaldo Highway is a highway passing through the busiest towns and cities of Cavite.^{[citation needed]}
• The Aguinaldo Hill, located at Barangay Asibanglan-Pinukpuk Road at Allaguia junction, was used as a common post by Aguinaldo during the Philippine–American War.^[115]

Written works

• Reseña verídica de la revolución filipina, 1899^[116]
• Talang Buhay ng Supremo And. Bonifacio sa Kabite, 1940's^[117]
• A Second Look at America, 1957
• Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan, 1964
• My Memoirs, 1967

Portrayals

In 1931, an American Pre-Code documentary film, Around the World in 80 Minutes with Douglas Fairbanks, had Douglas Fairbanks pose and speak for the camera as he talked with Aguinaldo.^[118]

Aguinaldo was also portrayed in various films that featured or centered on the Revolution. He was portrayed by the following actors in these films:

• 1926 – Charles Stevens in Across the Pacific
• 1993 – Mike Lloren in Sakay
• 1996 – Raymond Alsona in Bayani.
• 1997 – Joel Torre in Tirad Pass: The Story of Gen. Gregorio del Pilar.
• 2008 –
  Johnny Solomon in Baler
  .
• 2010 – Lance Raymundo in
  Ang Paglilitis ni Andres Bonifacio
  .
• 2010 – Dennis Trillo in the official "Lupang Hinirang" music video produced by GMA Network.
• 2011 – Carlos Morales in Watawat.
• 2012 – Jericho Ejercito and
  E.R. Ejercito in El Presidente
• 2013 – Nico Antonio in Katipunan.
• 2014 – Jun Nayra in Bonifacio: Ang Unang Pangulo.
• 2015 – Mon Confiado in Heneral Luna and its 2018 sequel Goyo: The Boy General
• 2018 – Gonzalo Gonzalez in Quezon's Game.
• 2018 – Jolo Revilla in Agosto Uno, Kasaysayang Nakalimutan a documentary film.

See also

• Rizal Day
• Tagalog people

Notes

References

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103. ^ Republic Act No. 4087 (June 18, 1964), An Act Appropriating Fifty Thousand Pesos to Defray the Expenses Incurred in Connection with the State Funeral for Emilio Aguinaldo and for the Erection of a Mausoleum to Contain His Remains, retrieved June 12, 2023
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105. ^ Pino, Gladys (February 7, 2019). "NHCP leads commemoration of Aguinaldo's 55th death anniv". Philippine News Agency. Retrieved June 12, 2023.
106. ^ "Full text of "In Memoriam Emilio Aguinaldo"". 1964. Retrieved June 12, 2023.
107. ^ Henares, Larry M. (January 25, 1991). "Who are the greatest Filipino presidents?". Manila Standard. Kagitingan Publications, Inc. p. 14. Retrieved May 20, 2021. The greatest of all is Emilio Aguinaldo, the first Asian to execute a nationalist revolution and break the shackles of Western Imperialism.
108. ^ "Roster of Recipients of Presidential Awards". Retrieved July 11, 2022.
109. ^ "Our Story". Knights of Rizal. Archived from the original on June 15, 2021. Retrieved January 24, 2022.
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111. ^ Republic Act No. 4346 (June 19, 1965), An Act Changing the Name of the Municipality of Bailen in the Province of Cavite to the Municipality of General Emilio Aguinaldo, retrieved June 12, 2023
112. ^ Opus224's Unofficial Philippine Defense Page Philippine Naval Force Recognition Guide Archived June 11, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
113. ^ "BSP releases new P5 coin to honor Andres Bonifacio". Rappler. November 29, 2017.
114. ^ Presidential Proclamation No. 621, s. 2018 (November 8, 2018), Declaring 22 March 2019 as "Emilio Aguinaldo Day" in Commemoration of his 150th Birth Anniversary and Directing the National Historical Commission of the Philippines to Lead the Implementation of the Program of Activities, archived from the original on June 12, 2023, retrieved June 12, 2023
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116. ^ "Resena veridica de la revolución filipina". Tarlak, P.I Imprenta nacional. 1899.
117. ^ Ileto, Reynaldo (January 2020). "(2020) FOREWORD to "Supremo Andres Bonifacio in Cavite" by Hen. Emilio Aguinaldo".
118. ^ "Emilio Aguinaldo Speech in Spanish". Around the World in 80 Minutes with Douglas Fairbanks. YouTube. March 26, 1931. Archived from the original on December 11, 2021. (video published October 4, 2012)

Bibliography

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  Jstor
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• Guerrero, Milagros; Schumacher, John (1998).
  OCLC 39734321
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• ISBN 978-0394549750
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  ISBN 978-0-8117-7153-5
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• Wolff, Leon (2006). Little Brown Brother. Wolff Productions.
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  .

Further reading

• Aguinaldo, Emilio (1964), Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan (in Tagalog),
  OCLC 21734097
• Zaide, Gregorio F; Zaide, Sonia M (1984). Philippine history and government: conceptual – chronological approach. National Book Store.
  OCLC 989388381
  .

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Emilio Aguinaldo (category)

Wikisource has original works by or about:
Emilio Aguinaldo

• The Philippine Presidency Project
• CAUTUSAN: Gobierno Revolucionario nang Filipinas at the Wayback Machine (archived December 11, 2007) [in Tagalog] A decree dated January 2, 1899, signed by Emilio Aguinaldo establishing a council of government.
• Aguinaldo: A Narrative of Filipino Ambitions at the Wayback Machine (archived February 13, 2008) Book written by American Consul Wildman of Hong Kong regarding Emilio Aguinaldo and the Filipino–American War during the early 1900s.
• Emilio Aguinaldo (1948). "General Emilio Aguinaldo's "Confession"" (in Tagalog). Archived from the original on May 27, 2008.
• Works by Emilio Aguinaldo at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about Emilio Aguinaldo at Internet Archive

Offices and distinctions
Political offices
New title Republic declared	President of the Philippines 1898–1901	Vacant Office nullified by the United States by Spain Title next held by Manuel L. Quezon
Military offices
Preceded by Antonio Luna	Commanding General of the Philippine Revolutionary Army 1899–1901	Succeeded by Jose de los Reyes as Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines